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AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 11 Constitutions

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 11th Lesson Constitutions Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 11th Lesson Constitutions

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Constitution and explain its features of the Constitution.
Answer:
Introduction :
The age of Democracy led to political civilisation. Now-a-days every civilised state possess a constitution. A Constitution is a condition of modem state. The constitution is a living text of a political system. It represents the political character of the state and its constituents.

The term constitution implies a written document embodying the provisions relating to the powers and functions of the government organs, the rights and duties of the citizens.

Meaning:
The term constitution is an English word. It was derived from a Latin word “Constitution, which means to Establish”.

Definitions:
1) Aristotle :
“Constitution is the arrangement of offices in a state, especially the highest of all”.

2) Lord Bryce:
“Constitution is a set of established rules embodying and enacting the practice of Government”.

3) Stephen Leacock:
“Constitution is the form of Government”.

4) K.C. Wheare :
“Constitution is that body of rules which regulates the ends for which governmental power is exercised”.

Features of the Constitution:
1) Preamble :
Every Constitution will have a preamble. The preamble denotes the aims and aspirations of the Constitution. It is like the soul of the Constitution. Hence, preamble is considered as an important feature of the Constitution.

2) Clarity:
Clarity is another important feature of the Constitution. The Constitution clearly explains about the different policies and methods of governance. It is written in a simple and clear language.

3) Incorporation of Fundamental Rights :
Every Constitution includes some funda-mental rights. These fundamerital rights are meant for safeguarding the freedoms of the citizens. They enable the citizens to realise their personality in various spheres. They help the citizens for leading a happy and honourable life in the state.

4) Brevity :
Brevity is another feature of a Constitution. Brevity avoids confussion among the individuals in understanding and interpreting provisions. Unnecessary elements are not included in the Constitution. It should be precise. It must not contain large number of clauses.

5) Flexibility:
The Constitution must be flexible for adapting the wishes are aspirations of the people from time to time. There must be a scope of amending the provisions of the Constitution if necessary. Frequent changes in the Constitution tend to weaken the spirit of the Constitution. But, at the same time, the Constitution of a modem state should be adaptable to the progressive changes.

6) Permanence:
Permanence is one more feature of the Constitution. The Constitution must have everlasting values for the welfare of the whole nation. It represents the actual structure of the state and its political institutions. It obliges the customs of the people.

7) Mode of Amendment:
The Constitution specifies the mode of amendment. It will be relevant to the contemporary conditions of the state. It contains a special chapter on the constitutional amendment procedures. Usually the constitutional amendments are of three types, namely (i) Rigid (ii) Flexible and (iii) Half rigid and Half flexible. On the whole, the constitution of every state comprises both rigid and flexible elements.

8) Explanatory:
The Constitution is explanatory in nature. It denotes and discusses almost all elements relating to the People, Government and State. It contains separate provisions on the structure, powers and limitations of state activity.

Question 2.
Define Constitution and point out the differences between Flexible and Rigid Constitutions.
Answer:
Definition :
The age of Democracy led to political civilisation. Now-a-days every civilised state possess a Constitution. A constitution is a condition of modem state. The constitution is a living text of a political system. It represents the political character of the state and its constituents.

Flexible Constitution:
Flexible constitution is one whose provisions can be amended easily. It requires no special procedure for changing its provisions. It can be amended by the authorities by adopting the same procedure of ordinary laws. So we do not find differences between ordinary and constitutional laws. Flexible constitutions were prevalent in the ancient period. Ex : British constitution.

Rigid Constitution :
Rigid constitution is one whose provisions cannot be changed easily. In this system the constitutional amendment methods are different from those of ordinary laws. There will be a special procedure for amending the provisions of the rigid constitution. The rigid constitution will have firmness due to its special procedures of amendment. Ex : United States.

Differences between Flexible and Rigid Constitution

Flexible Constitution	Rigid Constitution
1. Constitutional matters are not clearly mentioned.	1. Constitutional matters are clearly written.
2. Not appropriate to a federal state.	2. Appropriate for a federal state.
3. Highly unstable.	3. Highly stable.
4. Constitution can be easily amended.	4. Constitution cannot be easily amended.
5. Provides no scope for judicial review.	5. Provides scope for judicial review.
6. Only one type of law is found.	6. Two types of laws are found, constitutional and ordinary. Constitutional laws precede ordinary laws.
7. Rights, freedoms and liberties of people may not be safeguarded by the Judiciary.	7. Rights, freedoms and liberties of people will be better safeguarded by the Judiciary.
8. No scope for revolutions.	8. Scope for revolutions.
9. Possibility of unlimited legislative power.	9. Possibility of a limited legislative power.
10. More suitable to the politically advanced states.	10. More suitable to the developing nations.
11. It makes no differentiation between constitutional and ordinary laws.	11. It makes differentiation between constitutional and ordinary laws.
12. Appropriate to small states.	12. Appropriate to large states.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Constitution. Explain its features. [A.P. 19]
Answer:
Features of the Constitution:
1) Preamble :
Every Constitution will have a preamble. The preamble denotes the aims and aspirations of the Constitution. It is like the soul of the Constitution. Hence, preamble is considered as an important feature of the Constitution.

3) Incorporation of Fundamental Rights :
Every Constitution includes some fundamental rights. These fundamental rights are meant for safeguarding the freedoms of the citizens. They enable the citizens to realise their personality in various spheres. They help the citizens for leading a happy and honourable life in the state.

4) Brevity :
Brevity is another feature of a Constitution. Brevity avoids confession among the individuals in understanding and interpreting provisions. Unnecessary elements are not included inf he Constitution. It should be precise. It must not contain large number of clauses.

Question 2.
Explain the various bases of classifying constitutions.
Answer:
Political Scientists classified the constitutions into various types on the basis of (i) Evolution (ii) Nature (iii) Amendment. They are mentioned in the following table.
AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 11 Constitutions 1

1) Evolution of Constitution:
On the basis of evolution, constitutions are divided into two types, namely (a) Evolved Constitution (b) Enacted Constitution.
a) Evolved Constitution :
Evolved Constitution is also called as Cumulative Constitution. It is the result of evolutionary changes. It may be the product of collected material. It acts as the basis to the political institutions of a country. It is not made as it grows with the roots in the past. Several customs, usages, traditions, principles and judicial decisions etc act as the sources of this consitution. E.g. Britain.

b) Enacted Constitution :
Enacted Constitution is also known as Conventional Constitution. It is consciously made. It is the outcome of the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly specially convened for that purpose. It is promulgated by the sovereign authority – King or Parliament. The provisions of this constitution are incorporated in a document or a series of documents. E.g. United States, India.

2) Nature of Constitution:
Constitutions are classified into two types on the basis of the incorporation of the various provisions. They are
a) Written Constitution and
b) Unwritten Constitution

Question 3.
What are the merits and demerits of a Written Constitution?
Answer:
Written Constitution :
A written constitution is formulated and adopted by a Constituent Assembly or a Convention. It comprises several principles and rules of the Government in a written form or document. The Constitution of India is an example of written constitution. The American Constitution is the first written constitution in the world.

Merits:

A written constitution carries more simplicity. It gives no scope for confusion and ambiguity among the people in understanding the structure and organization of various institutions.
It protects the fundamental rights of the people.
It puts limitations on the powers of the Government.
It renders political stability due to its rigid nature.
It embodies the aspirations of the people. It cautions the Government about the importance of the accomplishment of popular needs.
It maintains equilibrium between the centre and the states by allocating powers in a judicious manner.
It safeguards the sanctity and spirit of a federation.

Demerits:

A written constitution cannot provide a better Government as it impose some . stipulated conditions on the party in power.
It makes the judiciary a predominant one.
Its provisions cannot be changed according to the needs and wishes of the people. So, the progress of the nations lags behind.
Its rigid nature is not helpful to the development of the state.
It gives scope for conflicts among the governmental organs.
It may not be conductive to the formation of a welfare state.

Question 4.
Explain the merits and demerits of Unwritten Constitution.
Answer:
Unwritten Constitution: Unwritten constitution is one whose provisions are not written in a single document. It includes several customs and traditions which are manifested in the form of the laws.

The Constitution of Britain is the best example of unwritten constitution.

Merits:

An unwritten constitution paves the way for progressive legislation. It has development orientation.
It always undergoes the process of evolution as it aims at ‘bettering the best’.
It gives no scope for revolutions and such other agitations. It concedes to the popular demands.
It can be amended according to the popular needs and aspirations.
Its provisions are elastic in nature. So, changes in the constitution are easily made.

Demerits:

An unwritten constitution may be changed frequently by the party in power for its political gains. This affects the political stability of the nation.
It fails to protect the rights and freedoms of people.
It is more informal in nature.
It is also not suitable for federal states.
An unwritten constitution is considered as a play tool of judges. This may lead to judicial manipulations.
It is prone to frequent amendments.
It is not suitable to democratic states.

Question 5.
Distinguish between Written and Unwritten Constitution.
Answer:
Written Constitution :
A written constitution is formulated and adopted by a Constituent Assembly or a Convention. It comprises several principles and rules of the Government in a written form or document. The Constitution of India is an example of written constitution. The American Constitution is the first written constitution in the world.

Unwritten Constitution:
Unwritten constitution is one whose provisions are not written in a single document. It includes several customs and traditions which are manifested in the form of the laws. The Constitution of Britain is the best example of unwritten constitution.

Differences between Written and Unwritten Constitutions

Written Constitution	Unwritten Constitution
1. Written constitution implies a document or few documents in which the rules regulating the main institutions of Government are written down.	1. Unwritten constitution denotes a sum of customs, conventions and usages which have not been systematically documented.
2. All the basic principles of the State are clearly written.	2. All the basic principles of the State exist in the form of customs and traditions.
3. Written constitution is framed by a special assembly convened at a particular point of time.	3. Unwritten constitution contains some written elements also in the form of enactments of fundamental charters made from time to time.
4. It is suitable to the educated and literate people.	4. It is suitable to the uneducated and illiterate people.
5. Courts of law protect the liberties of the citizens.	5. Courts of law cannot provide much protection.
6. It is formulated at a particular time.	6. It is evolutionary in nature.
7. It provides political stability.	7. It could not ensure political stability.
8. It cannot be easily amended.	8. It can easily be amended.
9. It is useful to federal states.	9. It is advantageous to the unitary states.

Question 6.
Explain the merits and demerits of a Rigid Constitution.
Answer:
Rigid Constitution :
Rigid constitution is one whose provisions cannot be changed easily. In this system the constitutional amendment methods are different from those of ordinary’ laws. There will be a special procedure for amending the provisions of the rigid constitution. The rigid constitution will have firmness due to its special procedures of amendment. The Constitution of the United States is the best example of a rigid constitution.

Merits:

Rigid constitution secures political stability.
It is a product of political experience.
It avoids hasty and ill-considered legislation.
It protects the fundamental rights of the citizens.
It preserves and enhances the interests of the provinces in a federal state.
It is suitable for all kinds of people.

Demerits :

Rigid constitution cannot be easily amended to suit the changing needs.
It may affect the nation’s progress and growth.
It is not suitable for tackling the issues arising during emergencies.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What do you mean by Constitution?
Answer:
The term constitution implies a written document embodying the provisions relating to the powers and functions of the Government organs, the rights and duties of the citizens.

Question 2.
What is an Evolved Constitution?
Answer:
Evolved constitution is also called Cumulative constitution. It is the result of evolutionary changes. It may be the product of collected material; It acts as the basis to the political institutions of a country. Several customs, usages, traditions, principles and judicial decisions are the major sources of this Constitution. Ex : British Constitution.

Question 3.
What is an Enacted Constitution?
Answer:
Enacted constitution is also known as Conventional constitution. It is consciously made. It is the outcome of the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly specially constituted for that purpose. It is promulgated by the Sovereign Authority i.e., king or queen or Parliament. Ex: The Constitutions of India and the U.S.A.

Question 4.
Write any three merits and demerits of the Flexible Constitution.
Answer:
Merits of Flexible Constitution are :

It is elastic and adaptable in nature. Its provisions can be easily amended from time to time.
It is responsive and responsible to popular wishes.
It protects the people from the dangers of revolutions.

Demerits of the Flexible Constitution are :

It is not suitable to the federal states, having a rigid constitutions.
It is not suitable to democratic states.
It is highly unstable.

Question 5.
Mention any two differences between Flexible and Rigid Constitutions.
Answer:
Differences between Flexible and Rigid Constitution

Flexible Constitution	Rigid Constitution
1. Constitutional matters are not clearly mentioned.	1. Constitutional matters are clearly written.
2. Constitution can be easily amended.	2. Constitution cannot be easily amended.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 10 Secularism

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 10th Lesson Secularism Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 10th Lesson Secularism

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Secularism and explain the conceptions of Secularism.
Answer:
Introduction:
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a Modem State. Secular State explains the relation between the State and Religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority oyer the state affairs.

Meaning:
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of Religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) GJ. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Conceptions of Secularism :
Secularism has many conceptions. Some of them may be explained as below:

1. Secularism a humanistic and atheistic philosophy :
Secularism has several personal, cultural, political and social implications. It was humanistic in nature as it seeks the well being of human beings. It assigns importance to the saying that man is the measure of all things. It neither supports nor opposes religion. It allows individuals with the discretion of choosing and following their religion.

2. Political and social dimension :
Secularism has certain political and social dimensions. It stands for the achievement of autonomous political and social order having naturalistic and materialistic perspectives. It allows religious freedom in the matters of family, association and society.

3. Liberty and Secularism:
Secularism serves as a beneficial element of liberty and Secularism. It also acts as the basis of liberal Secularism. It strongly opposes the existence, continuance and survival of authoritarian religious leaders and institutions. It advocated Secularism and decentralisation of governmental powers.

4. Opposition to religion :
Secularism is vehemently opposed to the supporting of religion in public matters. It condemned the presence and domirlance of eclesiastical authorities. It relegated religion to unimportant matters of life. It considered that people could follow their rituals without affecting the peace and order in society. Individuals must carry on their religious activities without causing harm, hatred and ill-will among the followers of other religious denominations. They must consider the noble aims and aspirations of the makers of the constitution.

Question 2.
Describe the meaning and various dimensions of Secularism.
Answer:
Introduction:
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a Modem State. Secular State explains the relation between the State and Religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority over the state affairs.

Meaning:
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Dimensions of Secularism: Secularism can be analysed under the following dimensions:
1. Social dimension :
Secularism stands for eschewing or ignoring superstitions in social life. It never allows individuals to think and act in terms of one’s caste, colour, creed etc. It desires individuals to abstain untouchability, bonded labour and other evil practices in their day-to-day activities while dealing with their neighbours. It advises them to treat others on equal and respectable manner. It cautions them against the practice of caste disparities, colour differentiations, racial bigotry etc. At the end, it prescribed harmonious relations between individuals in society.

2. Economic dimension:
Economic dimension of Secularism relates to the freedom of individuals to embrace, practice and propagate an occupation which they like best. It restrains them against the practice of religious discrimination between individuals in utilizing natural, human and economic resources in productive operations. It did not allow the State authorities to observe discretion in sanctioning permits and licenses to the entrepreneurs on religious grounds. It assigns significance to elements like merit, talent, enterprising spirit etc., while allocating industrial licenses and other operations among individuals in the economy.

3. Political dimension:
Secularism has also some political dimensions. It allows the citizens to have complete freedom in political affairs. It believes that politics, administration, legislation and execution of public policies are entirely different from religious matters. Accordingly citizens in a Secular State are conferred several political rights and freedoms in choosing the candidates and exercising their franchise during elections. It gives scope for any citizen to hold any public office within the State irrespective of religious conside¬rations. It will not consider religion as a pre-requisite for granting political rights. It will pave the way for democratic aspirations and freedom of the people. To say in brief political dimension of secularism in synonymous with the democratic functioning of modem state.

Question 3.
What do you. know about the meaning and merits of Secularism?
Answer:
Introduction:
Secularism is one of the characteristic feature of a Modem State. Secular State explains the relation between the State and Religion. The concept of secularism was popularised by the state authority to control the religion and religious authority over the State affairs.

Meaning:
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularism is an ideology which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G.J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is an idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religious beliefs”.

Merits of Secularism :
The following are some of the important merits of secularism.

1. Equality:
Secularism forms as the basis of equalitarian society. It treats the people belonging to all religious denominations as equal. It gives no recognition to the man made inequalities and discriminations based on caste, colour, community, region, religion, language, race etc. People will have a strong favourable impression towards the nation.

2. Religious freedom :
Secularism enables the individuals to enjoy their religious freedom to their full extent. The state will not interfere in the religious affairs of individuals. The Constitution and various laws in a Secular State will provide individuals with complete freedom to embrance, profess, practice and propagate any religion as they like.

3. taw and order:
Now a days one can observe unhappy, miserable and pro-religious movements that are organized by different sections of government, state and other department. The maintenance of communal harmony became a challenging task for the state in pacifying the feelings the people belonging to various religious denominations. Secularism avoids communal clashes and religious bigotry and animosities in the society. This is due to the fact that secularism ultimately promotes religious harmony among the people.

4. Rule of law:
Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to.all religious denomination. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly it makes no discrimination between the people on the ground of religion.

5. Tolerance :
Secularism preaches tolerance and kindness. It believes in universal brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God. It professes, propagates and practices the noble principles of charity, kindness, love, magnanimity, non-violence etc. As a result, Secularism is characterized by the peaceful co-existence of people and smooth working of the polity and social institutions in the state.

6. National integration :
Secularism serves as the best means for fostering national unity and integrity feelings among the people. It is also considered as the best device for achieving unity in diversity. It brings unity among the people of various religious beliefs and practices.

7. Protection to the minorities:
Secularism treats all alike. It makes no discrimination between the people of majority and other sections of society. At the same time it extends special facilities to the minority sections for preserving and promoting their interests against the dominance of majority religious group. It teaches the people about the significance of religious tolerance towards minority sections.

8. Alround progress:
The greatest merit of secularism relates to the achievement of alround progress of the people. This is possible due to the prevalence of rule of law, religious tolerance, neutral attitude of the government etc. Especially the government will make all efforts for the development of the people of all religious denominations in all spheres of welfare, social justice, protecting the interests of disadvantages sections etc.

Question 4.
Define Secular State and elaborate the features and importance of Secular State.
Answer:
Introduction :
A State following secular policy in administrative, educational and employment matters is known as Secular State. The government in Secular State follows a neutral policy in religious matters of the people. Ex: India

Definition :
D.E.Smith defined secular state as “none while guaranteeing individual and corporate freedom of religion, which deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of his religion”.

Features of Secular State :
Secular State comprises the following features.

1. No place for religion:
Secular States does not assign significance to any particular religion. It will not make laws or implement them on religious grounds.

2. Equal status :
Secular State accords equal status to its people. It makes no differentiation between individuals on the grounds of their caste, colour, community, religion, race, region, language etc. As a result, people will have satisfaction and extend co-operation to the government in the implementation of various policies and programmes. They live together with the fellow members of other religious denominations. ‘

3. No state religion :
Secular state does not recognize any particular religion as the state religion. It adopts neutral policy in religious matters. It implements various laws and social welfare measures without basing on the religious feelings of the people. It will not assign special role to any particular religion in public activities. All public places like educational institutions, government offices and judicial organizations will carry on their activities with out aligning to a particular religion.

Importance of Secular State :
The concept of Secular State became more important in recent years. Factors like spread of democratic spirit, science and technology, development of transport and communication facilities, rational thinking, welfarism etc., led to the growing importance of Secular State. On the whole, importance of Secular State may be explained with the following points.

Secular state strengthens the non-religious forces in-different fields in the State.
It drives away the social evils and superstitions from the minds of the people.
It contributes to social reformation by driving away the communal bigotry and religious fundamentalism.
It promotes scientific temper and helps intellectual progress of the people.
It gives priority to reason over faith, logic over magic and fact over fiction.
It provides security and protection to religious minorities.
It accommodates every individual with his personal religious beliefs.

Question 5.
Point out Secularism in Indian context.
Answer:
After independence the Constitution of India provided for Secularism as the basic philosophy underlying the organization and functioning of Indian Republic. Accordingly the constitution of India declared India as a secular state. The governments in India (including tiie union, state, provincial and local authorities) adopt secularism in theory and practice. It should not practice religion in public matters in the matters of legislation, execution and administration of the State. People of India are allowed complete religious freedom for professing, practicing and propagating their respective religious beliefs. The State will be neither irreligious nor anti religious. Instead it adopts a neutral policy in religious matters.

It is not entitled to impose taxes or collect them purely on religious grounds. Admissions into the state or government aided institutions are completely prohibited on religious grounds. Similarly, propagation of religious programmes in public institutions are banned. Hence secularism carries a lot of importance as per the constitutional provisions.

It may be noted that the word ‘Secular’ did not find place at first in the Constitution. The preamble too did not contain any wording of secularism. However, keeping in view the ongoing communal incidents for decades together after independence, the top leaders in the union government felt the need for incorporating the word ‘Secular’ in the Preamble. They wanted to avoid religious tensions and forbid communal clashes between the various religious denominations in India.

The Constitution (Forty Second Amendment) Act, 1976 made a provision for the word Secular’ in the Preamble. Smt. Indira Gandhi, India’s third Prime Minister, at the time of introducing the Constitution (forty second amendment) bill in Parliament stated thus “Secularism is neither favouring nor showing in difference to a religion to religion. It implies equal respect for all religious denominations. There is no future for any nation by adopting mere tolerance. Positive respect by every religious group towards other religious groups is the need of the hour”.

Question 6.
Is India a Secular State? Justify this with some examples.
Answer:
It is asserted that India is a Secular State. The addition of the word Secular’ to our Constitution by 42^nd Amendment in 1976 proves this fact. Even from the beginning of the Constitution, India is a Secular State. Several provisions of the Indian Constitution also prove this fact.

Article 15(1) holds that no discrimination shall be observed in the provision of employment opportunities in government. But certain sections of the people may be allowed some special privileges.
Article 17 states that practice of untouchability is a crime and illegal.
According to Article 25, every Indian citizen enjoys the freedom to profess and propagate the religion of his own choice. It also allows them to donate their properties for the religious purposes.
Article 26 guarantees every person to
1. Establish and maintain religious and charitable institutions.
2. Manage his/her religious affairs.
3. Own and acquire moveable and immovable properties and
4. Maintain such properties in accordance with law.
Article 27 states that state shall hot impose any tax upon the individual for the development of religions. It also implies that state shall not impose taxes on the basis of the religious principles of individuals.
Article 28 forbids the imparting of religious teachings in the educational institutions which are wholly or partly aided tty the government. No religious prayers or discussions shall be conducted in educational institutions.
Articles 28 and 29 mention that no admissions shall be made on religious basis in educational institutions which are financed wholly or partly by the state. No individual on religions grounds shall be denied the right to admission into different academic courses in. educational institutions.
The people belonging to minority communities shall be provided with right to protect and promote their language, culture and script by establishing and maintaining their own educational institutions. From the above points, we may say that India is a Secular State.

Question 7.
Suggest measures for making India a Secular State.
Answer:
It is highly essential to wipe out the communal feelings from the minds of people for establishing a real Secular State. In this regard, the following measures have to be adopted by the government, political parties, voluntaiy organizations and people.

The ministers and government officers shall not attend to or participate in the meetings held by religious associations. They shall not adopt any religious methods or poojas at the time of laying foundation or inaugurating the public buildings or programmes and give an impression that they do not favour a particular religion.
Government shall ban all those religious associations which carry on their activities against national or social interests and the constitution.
Government shall not allow the construction of religious structures which may, impede peace and tranquility in a particular locality.
Government shall implement land reforms, family welfare, employment generation and other programmes without any religious bias.
Government shall ban those political parties which use religion for securing votes. Similarly all parties formed on communal basis shall be banned. Use of religious symbols during elections should be banned.
Government shall take steps for publishing text books on secular basis. The text books shall consist of lessons preaching religious tolerance or universal religion.
Efforts shall be made for solving the various social and economic problems on rational and scientific basis without reference to religion.
The various information and communication agencies shall not disseminate information and incidents on religious grounds. They shall not give undue importance to communal riots which may provoke further unrest between the same groups elsewhere.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the origin of Secularism.
Answer:
The ancient Roman emperors denied recognition to the Christian religion. In the medieval period social and religious reformers like Martin Luther and Calvin Zwingle challenged the spiritual monopoly of religious heads. They advocated that religion and spiritual matters are purely personal and private matters. Their speeches marked a break through in religious matters. In modem period, political thinkers like Machiavelli and Jean Bodin emphasized the need for the separation of religion from politics.

John Locke and other liberal thinkers advised the people to follow religious tolerance. In course of time, the writings of the above thinkers influenced the people who began to treat religion as a private and personal affair. In the United States, President Thomas Jafforson explained the real meaning of Secularism by stating that there exists a wall of separation between the State and the Religion.

Question 2.
List out the factors that led to the spread of Secularism.
Answer:
It is believed that the following factors have led to the spread of Secularism in general in many parts of the world.

People negative attitude towards superstitions
Spread of rationed thinking
Spread of democratic values and institutions
Advancement in science and technology
Awareness about the evils of religion
Impact of social legislation
Need for secular approach
Social and economic betterment of individuals
Influence of secular political leadership
Importance to international peace and order

The above factors have profoundly influenced secularism in modem period.

Question 3.
Narrate any three conceptions of Secularism.
Answer:
Conceptions of Secularism :
Secularism has many conceptions. Some of them may be explained as below :

Question 4.
Briefly analyse the dimensions of Secularism.
Answer:
Dimensions of Secularism: Secularism can be analysed under the following dimensions:

1. Social dimension :
Secularism stands for eschewing or ignoring superstitions in social life. It never allows individuals to think and act in terms of one’s caste, colour, creed etc. It desires individuals to abstain untouchability, bonded labour and other evil practices in their day-to-day activities while dealing with their neighbours. It advises them to treat others on equal and respectable manner. It cautions them against the practice of caste disparities, colour differentiations, racial bigotry etc. At the end, it prescribed harmonious relations between individuals in society.

3. Political dimension :
Secularism has also some political dimensions. It allows the citizens to have complete freedom in political affairs. It believes that politics, administration, legislation and execution of public policies are entirely different from religious matters. Accordingly citizens in a Secular State are conferred several political rights and freedoms in choosing the candidates and exercising their franchise during elections. It gives scope for any citizen to hold any public office within the State irrespective of religious considerations. It will not consider religion as a pre-requisite for granting political rights. It will pave the way for democratic aspirations and freedom of the people. To say in brief political dimension of secularism in synonymous with the democratic functioning of modem state.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Theocracy?
Answer:
Theocracy technically means rule by God. In practice, it implies rule by priests. It originated from the theory that all legitimate powers emanate from God. It found expression in the priestly order having the sole right to interpret laws as was the case in Ancient Judiasm and Hinduism. It is also exhibited in the present day Islam. The state having an official religion is called a Theocratic State. In such states all other religions or religious activities are either prohibited or discouraged or highly regulated Or controlled by the State. All the official and important offices of the State are either appointed or elected only those from the official religion.

State officially participates in the religious affairs and rituals. State provides funds to the religious propagation and to the restoration or construction of the places of worship. Religious co-existence and religious tolerance are said to be minimal in these States. The religious teachers and the religious rituals play a pivotal role in State affairs. Religious personal law is predominant in the enactment of laws and in the way of life of the people. Even in food habits and dress, the importance of religions dictates the public life. States like Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and so many other Islamic states are the best examples of a Theocratic State.

Question 6.
Distinguish between Secular State and Theocratic State.
Answer:
Secular state and theocratic state are not same and identical. Eventhough both arise in human political organizations like State, they completely differ from one another in several aspects. These may be demonstrated with the help of the following table.

Secular State	Theocratic State
1. Secular state is based on elements other than religion.	1. Theocratic State is based primarily on religious elements.
2. There will he no official religion in a Secular State.	2. There will be a particular religion which is declared as official religion in a Theo-cratic State.
3. Citizens belonging to all religions enjoy religious freedom without any dis-crimination.	3. Citizens of a particular majority religion will have priority and privileges over those of other religious denominations.
4. Rule of law prevails in a Secular State.	4. Religious diktats take precedence over the ordinary laws.
5. Secular State is based on the principle equality of all religions.	5. Theocratic State is based on the premise that some men belonging to a particular religion will be more important in pvfblic affairs.
6. Religion is not a criteria or basis for the imposition of taxes.	6. Religion will be treated as the basis for imposing taxes or for extending tax concessions.
7. The state will be neither religious nor irreligious.	7. The state will be pro-religious by showing special favour to a particular community in several matters.
8. Education is imparted on secular model in the state aided or partially state aided institutions.	8. Educational curriculm comprises some pro-religious topics.

Question 7.
Explain any four merits of Secularism.
Answer:
Merits of Secularism:
The following are some of the important merits of secularism.

3. Law and order:
Now a days one can observe unhappy, miserable and pro-religious movements that are organized by different sections of government, state and other department. The maintenance of communal harmony became a challenging task for the state in pacifying the feelings the people belonging to various religious denominations. Secularism avoids communal clashes and religious bigotry and animosities in the society. This is due to the fact that secularism ultimately promotes religious harmony among the people.

4. Rule of law:
Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to all religious denomination. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly it makes no discrimination between the people on the ground of religion. .

Question 8.
What are the features of Secular State?
Answer:
Features of Secular State :
Secular State comprises the following features.
1. No place for religion:
Secular States does not assign significance to any particular religion. It will not make laws or implement them on religious grounds.

Question 9.
Write about the importance of Secular State.
Answer:
Importance of Secular State :
The concept of Secular State became more important in recent years. Factors like spread of democratic spirit, science and technology, development of transport and communication facilities, rational thinking, welfarism etc., led to the growing importance of Scular State. On the whole, importance of Secular State may be explained with the following points.

Secular state strengthens the non-religious forces in different fields in the state.
It drives away the social evils and superstitions from the minds of the people.
It contributes to social reformation by driving away the communal bigotry arid religious fundamentalism.
It promotes scientific temper and helps intellectual progress of the people.
It gives priority to reason over faith, logic over magic, and fact over fiction.
It provides security and protection to religious minorities.
It accommodates every individual with his personal religious beliefs.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Secularism.
Answer:
Meaning:
The term “Secular” in Latin language means “Of this World”. It denotes the meaning “the opposite of Religion”.

Definitions:
1) E.S. Waterhouse :
Secularisrn is an ideology Which provides a theory of life and conduct as against one provided in Religion”.

2) G.J. Holyoake :
“Secularism is ari idea of promoting a social order as separate from religion without actively dismissing or criticising religions beliefs”.

Question 2.
What are the types of Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism is of two types, namely, i) Subjective ii) Objective

Subjective Secularism means the gradual separation Of religious feelings from everyday transactions of the people. Objective Secularism implies the elimination of religious rituals and institutions from public life and government activity.

Question 3.
What is D.E. Smith’s definition of Secularism?
Answer:
D.E. Smith stated three connotations of secularism. They are:
a) Liberty and freedom of religion
b) Citizenship and the right to equality, non-discrimination and neutrality
c) Separation of state from religion.

Question 4.
Write about origin of Secularism.
Answer:
The term ’Secular1 in Latin language means ’of this world’. It implies the meaning ’the opposite of religion’. In modem times, the term was used at first by G.J. Holyoake, a British writer in 1851.

Question 5.
Mention any four factors that led to the spread of Secularism.
Answer:
a) People’s native attitude towards superstitions
b) Spreading rational thinking
c) Spreading democratic values and institutions
d) Advancement in science and technology

Question 6.
Write about any one conception of Secularism.
Answer:
Secularism has several personal, cultural, political, and social implications. It was humanistic in nature as it seeks the well-being of human beings. It assigns importance to the saying that man is the measure of all things. It neither supports nor opposes religion. It allows individuals with the discretion of choosing and following their religion.

Question 7.
What is the Social dimension of Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism stands for eschewing or ignoring superstitions in social life. It never allows individuals to think and act in terms of one’s caste, colour, creed etc. It desires individuals to abstain untouchability, bonded labour and other evil practices in their day to day activities while dealing with their neighbours. It advises them to treat others on equal and respectable manner.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Theocracy? [A.P. 19, 18, 15; T.S. 15]
Answer:
The state having an official religion is called a Theocratic State. In such states all other religions or religious activities are either prohibited or discouraged or highly regulated or controlled by the state. All the official and important offices of the state are either appointed or elected only those from the official religion. State officially participates in the religious affairs and rituals.

Question 9.
List out any two differences between Secular State and Theocratic State.
Answer:

Secular State is based on elements other than religion, whereas theocratic state is based on religious elements.
There will be no official religion in a Secular State, whereas there will be a particular religion which is declared as official religion in a theocratic state.

Question 10.
In what way does secularism enable religious freedom to individual?
Answer:
Secularism does not recognize any particular religion as the state religion. Secular state adopts neutral policy in religious matters. It implements various laws and social welfare measures without basing on the religious feelings of the people.

Question 11.
How does rule.of law promotes Secularism?
Answer:
Secularism accords recognition to the concept of Rule of Law. A state following secularism will enact laws and implements them keeping in view the interest of not a particular religious denomination, the people belonging to all religious denominations. It will not take into account the religious dogmas while making laws. Similarly, it makes no discrimination between the people on the grounds of religion in the matters of legislation enforcement and adjudication of laws.

Question 12.
Define Secular State.
Answer:
D.E. Smith defined Secular State as “None while guaranteeing individual and corporate freedom of religion, which deals with the individual as a citizen irrespective of his religion”.

Question 13.
Write about any two features of Secular State. [A.P. Mar, 18]
Answer:
Features of Secular State :
Secular State comprises the following features.

1. No place for religion:
Secular States does not assign significance to any particular religion. It will not make laws or implement them on religious grounds.

2. Equal status :
Secular state accords equal status to its people. It makes no differentiation between individuals on the grounds of their caste, colour, community, religion, race, region, language etc. As a result, people will have satisfaction and extend co-operation to the government in the implementation of various policies and programmes. They live together with the fellow members of other religious denominations.

Question 14.
What is the importance of Secular State?
Answer:
The concept of Secular State became more important in recent years. Factors like spread of democratic spirit, science and technology, development of transport and communication facilities, rational thinking, welfarism etc., led to the growing importance of Secular State.

Question 15.
Mention any two elements that justify India as a Secular State.
Answer:

The term ‘Secular’ was included in the Indian Constitution in the year 1976 through the 42^nd Constitutional Amendment Act.
Indian Constitution guarantees six fundamental rights out of which, the most promising right i.e., right to freedom of religion from articles 25 to 28, is enough to justify India as a Secular State.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 9 Democracy

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 9th Lesson Democracy Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 9th Lesson Democracy

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Democracy and explain the essential features of democracy.
Answer:
Definitions:
The term ‘Democracy’ is taken from two Greek words ‘Demos’ and ‘Kratos’. ‘Demos’ means people and ‘Kratos’ means rule or authority. Hence, democracy means the rule of the people or the authority of the people. Democracy is defined by different political scientists in different ways.

Those are –

Abraham Lincoln defines “Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.
Seeley defines “Democracy is a government in which everyone has a share”.

Features of Democracy:
The features of democracy may be explained as follows.

1) Popular government:
Democracy is basically a government by the people. In democracy people act as the rulers and the ruled. While the voters assume ultimate sovereign authority, their representatives are considered as the immediate masters over the rulers in government. Both the voters and their representatives play a decisive role in public affairs of course with some minor degree of variations.

2) Popular control:
In democracy, citizens will have control over the political affairs. Citizens regulate the affairs of government by expressing their opinion on various policies and programmes of the latter. They support the wise, honest and welfare oriented programmes.

3) Individual’s dignity :
In democracy individual’s dignities are honoured by the government. Even the ordinary persons living in distant and remote places are given various opportunities to express their opinions.

4) Elections :
Democracy and elections are closely related. Democracy gives scope for holding elections at regular intervals as per constitutional norms.

5) Public accountability :
Democracy is characterised by public accountability. The various governments functioning in democracy owe accountability immediately to the legislators and ultimately to the voters at large.

6) Fundamental freedoms :
A noble feature of democracy relates to the enjoyments of fundamental freedoms by the people. Democracy gives scope for civil, political economic, cultural and other freedoms.

7) Independent Judiciary :
Independent Judiciary is another essential feature of democracy. In some states like United States and India the judicial organizations enjoy the power of judicial review.

8) Equality :
Democracy is based on the concept of equality. Equality is the basic postulate of democracy. Democracy allows no special privileges to some thereby affecting others rights. It is based on the equal application of laws and equal provision of opportunities.

Question 2.
Explain the merits and demerits of Democracy.
Answer:
Introduction :
Democracy is an important and most significant form of government. In Democracy the people rule themselves either directly or indirectly through their periodically elected epresentatives.

Meaning :
The term Democracy is derived from two greek words namely, “Demos” and “Kratos”. Demos means people and Kratos mean rule (or) authority.

Definitions:
1. Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2. Lord Bryce:
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

3. J.R. Seely:
“Democracy is a government in which every one has a share”.

Merits :
Democracy has the following merits.

a) Efficient government :
Prof. Garner described democracy as an efficient and effective government. The government in democracy carries all its activities efficiently and effectively both in normal times and emergencies.

b) Upholds individual liberties :
Democracy is the only government that upholds individual liberties. It guarantees certain civil rights to the people thereby providing an opportunity for them to become ideal and responsible citizens.

c) Assures equality:
Democracy assures equality of individuals in political and economic spheres. The people living in democratic nation enjoy all,the political. Civil and economic rights and privileges equally without any discrimination.

d) Educates the masses :
Democracy is described as a laboratory for a large scale experiments in public education. The masses in democracy are educated and enlightened through public meetings, election campaigns, distribution of pamphelts, etc.

e) Promotes patriotism :
The people in a democracy think that the country is their own property. When the country is in difficulties, they come forward to protect the interests of the nation. Therefore democracy develops patriotic spirit in the people.

f) Develops sense of responsibility:
J.S. Mill says that “democracy promotes a better and higher form of national character than any other policy whatever”. Since it is a rule by themselves, the people behave with a great sense of responsibility.

g) Training school for citizenship :
De Tocqueville, a French writer said that democracy serves as a training school for citizenship. Democracy promotes intellectual and moral qualities among the people.

h) A rational government :
Democracy is based on the principle that no man is infallible. It adopts a process of discussion and criticism which serves as necessaiy correctives to the abuse of power. Besides, they safeguard the rational nature of the political system.

Demerits :
Democracy has the following demerits.
a) Rule of Ignorance :
Plato criticised democracy as a rule of ignorance. Aristotle called it a perverted form of government. Anybody can become a ruler in this system and no special qualifications are prescribed for voters or rulers.

b) Favourable to rich :
The ruling political party in democracy depends on the rich people for their financial support at the time of elections. Therefore it becomes an obligation to the party in power to make laws Which are favourable to the rich.

c) Quality is ignored:
The votes in democracy are counted not weighted. Everything is decided according to majority opinion. The quality of majority cannot always be correct. Thus quantity is given greater importance them quality.

d) Methods of representation is not correct:
The present method of representation in democracy is known as territorial representation. It is not suitable to the requirements of the modem society.

e) Principle of equality abused:
In the name of equality, everybody is treated as an equal to the other irrespective of his worth. Ex: Right to vote is given to all without knowing their political ability.

f) No moral values :
In democracy, there is great scope for bribery and corruption. Red tapism, party defections and the role of money in elections are thebest examples of its corrupt nature.

g) Expensive one:
Democracy is an expensive government. In the name of elections, political parties and government spend chuge amounts of public money. Even in developing countries like India, crores and crores of rupees are wasted for elections.

Question 3.
Suggest the conditions required for the successful functioning ofDemo-
Answer:
The following conditions are essential for the success of democracy.
1. Sound system of Education:
The success of democracy requires adequate edcation for the citizens. Ignorance, innocence and uneducation prevent them from adopting right attitudes and large-scale reforms. Education sharpens the intellect of individuals. It develops a proper understanding of various things. It makes the citizens vigilant. Besides, this enables them to assess and criticise the policies of government.

2. Enlightened Citizenship:
Enlightened citizens are an asset to the democratic state. They can excise proper vigilance. They can actively participate in public affairs and help their fellow, citizens in the exercise of their rights and discharge of their reponsibilities. They extend co-operation to the government in all its good work.

3. Independent Press:
An independent press is a prerequisite of democracy. It enables the people to receive accurate and unbiased information regarding the activities of the government. It not only keeps the people in touch with government activities but also ventilates their grievances. It strives to promote harmonious relationship between the people and the government.

4. Strong Opposition :
The success of parliamentary democracy depends to a great extent on the strong and effective opposition. Such an opposition will act as a check against the government by pointing out its lapses. In this regard, the role of opposition in some advanced states.

5. Decentralization of powers :
Decentralization of powers and establishment of democratic institutions at the grass roots level is indispensable for the healthy organisation of democratic institutions. The representative bodies at the grass roots level (as known as Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India) will act as the mini legislatures. The residents of local areas will be able to know how to exercise their franchise.

6. Absence of economic disparities :
Democracy can not function smoothly when there are economic disparities in a country. When a country comprises a large number of poor people and a few wealthy persons, democracy could not work successfully.

7. Social Equality:
Social equality is another pre-requisite of democracy. Caste, class and racial differences will impede the healthy working of democracy. Such elements encourage of democratic polity. To be successful, democracy must open its doors to everybody on equal basis by providing equal social opportunities to all in social sphere. Social equality must not only be proclaimed but also be practiced.

8. Faith in democracy:
Certain democratic beliefs and values like individual’s worth, need for tolerance of differences, decisions through discussions etc., should be inculcated among the people.

9. Sagacious Leadership :
Sagacious leadership is another essential condition of democracy. Sagacious leaders, by dint’ of their administrative acumen, political propriety, social commitment and economic perspective, will be able to lead the democratic state to greater heights of glory.

10. Honesty and transparency:
Honest persons belonging to various walks life, when entrusted with major responsibilities of the government, will strive for the success of democracy. Similarly transparency in administration also acts as a basic ingredient for the success of democracy.

11. Absence of militarism :
Democracy functions mostly in countries which are relatively free from militarism. In rules out the use of force and believes in the worth of individuals. It provides adequate opportunities to the people basing on worth, ablility and dedication militarism, on the other hand, demands concentration of authority and favours despotism.

Question 4.
What do you mean by Democracy? Write about the direct democratic devices.
Answer:
Meaning :
The term Democracy is derived from two greek words namely, “Demos” and “Kratos”. Demos means people and Kratos mean rule (or) authority.

Definitions:
1. Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2. Lord Bryce:
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

3. J.R. Seely:
“Democracy is a government in which every one has a share”.

Direct Democracy :
Direct Democracy is said to prevail when people themselves directly express their views and participate in the deliberative and administrative affairs of the government. People in direct democracy assume all powers of making laws. They formulate laws at a meeting attended by all the people. Direct Democracy is prevalent in Switzerland. In Switzerland, the citizens living in some small cantons meet together on a Sunday in April or May to elect their representatives and to make laws.

Devices Direct Democracy:
There are four devices prescribed in direct democracies to enable the people to participate directly in the administrative activities of the State. Those are

Referendum
Initiative
Recall and
Plebiscite.

These methods may be explained as follows.
1. Referendum:
It is one of the direct democratic devices. Literally it means, “must be referred to the people”. It is a device where by the electorate may veto a proposed legislation or a bill which the legislature has already passed. In other words, bills passed by the legislature are the voters for their approval or disapproval. If majority of the voters approve them, they become acts. But if they vote against them, they will be given up.

Hence, referendum is known as “Popular Veto”. It is of two types – 1) Compulsory referendum: All the constitutional bills must be sent to the people. 2) Optional Referendum : An ordinary bill passed by the legislative may be or may not be sent to the people. However, even that ordinary bill must be sent to the people, if a definite number of people demand it. Ex : In Switzerland 30,000 people or eight cantons (States) can demand referendum on an ordinary bill.

2. Initiative :
It is another device of direct democracy. It is a method by means of which the people propose legislation i.e.; they can ask the legislature to pass a particular law. For instance, in Switzerland, if 50,000 voters request the legislature to pass a law, then the proposal is submitted to the consideration of the people. If majority of the people (30,000) approve it, then it becomes an act. Unlike referendum, initiative provides a chance to the people to start the making of law. It is of two types : (1) Formulative Initiative : People present a bill to the legislature (2) Unformulative Initivative : People present a demand to the legislature as king it to pass a bill.

3. Recall:
It is another device of Direct Democracy. It means “Calling Back”. According to this method a specific number of voters may call back or dismiss an elected officer or a member of the legislature before the expiry of his term, if he is irresponsible. By means of this, the people can remove a representative or an officer from office when he fails to discharge his duties properly.

4. Plebiscite:
The term ‘Plebiscite” is derived from a French word “Plebiscitum”, which means “decree of the people”. It is used to obtain the opinion of the people on an important political issue or when there is a dispute regarding some territory. The question of accession or secession or territory is generally solved by means of plebiscite. It is not concerned with legislation. It is not apart of legal process. It is only a democratic method of ascertaining the opinion of the people on any political issue of public importance.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What are the different aspects of democracy?
Answer:
Aspects of Democracy:
Democracy has there aspects, namely, 1) Social, 2) Economic and 3) Political. Democracy does not exist if any of the aspects are not prevalent in a society.

1. Social aspect of democracy implies the abolition of all discriminations on the grounds of class, colour, caste, creed, religion, nationality etc. All people irrespective of men or women, rich or poor are treated equally. In other words, democracy in its social aspect, means the prevalence of rule of law, equality of treatment, abolition of discrimination and absence of special privileges.

2. The economic aspect of democracy implies the equal distribution of wealth in society and removal of glaring disparities on the basis of wealth. Economic democracy becomes real through the provision Of right to work, leisure, adequate and fair wages. It implies the workers’ participation in the management of the factories or democracy in industry. Economic democracy also involves the provision of adequate opportunities to all people in economic matters.

3. Lastly, the political aspect of democracy means the provision of rights, namely, right to vote, right to contest elections, right to hold public offices and right to criticism. It also implies the provision or right to freedoms of speech, expression, criticism, associations, assembly, residence and movement.

Question 2.
Describe the various types of Democracy. [A.P. Mar, 15]
Answer:
Democracy is mainly classified into two types, Namely 1. Direct or Pure Democracy 2. Indirect or Representative Democract. These two types are explained as below :

1. Direct or Pure Democracy:
Direct Democracy :
Direct Democracy is said to prevail when people themselves directly express their views and participate in the deliberative and administrative affairs of the government. People in direct democracy assume all powers of making laws. They formulate laws at a meeting attended by all the people. Direct Democracy is prevalent in Switzerland. In Switzerland, the citizens living in some small cantons meet together on a Sunday in April or May to elect their representatives and to make laws.

2. Indirect or Representative Democracy :
Indirect democracy is also known as representative democracy. According to J.S. Mill “Representative democracy is one in which the whole people or some numerous portion of them exercise the governing power through deputies periodically elected by themselves”. This type of democracy for the first time, came into vogue in England. Later on, France, Germany, Italy and India adopted this system. At present representative democracy is prevalent in several countries like India, France, Japan, America, Canada, Holland, Sri Lanka etc. Under this System, citizens who attained the age of maturity elect their representatives in times of elections.

These representatives will assume the deliberative and legislative powers of the government on behalf of the people. They formulate different legislative policies in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the electorate. They are responsible and responsive to the people for their acts. They continue in office only for a definite period of time. They can be removed by the citizens in times of elections when they fail to promote the welfare of the people. Hence in indirect democracy the people rule the country not themselves directly but indirectly through the periodically elected representatives.

Question 3.
Write briefly about Representative Democracy.
Answer:
Indirect democracy is also known as representative democracy. According to J.S. Mill “Representative democracy is one in which the whole people or some numerous portion of them exercise the governing power through deputies periodically elected by themselves”.

This type of democracy for the first time, came into vogue in England. Later on, France, Germany, Italy and India adopted this system. At present representative democracy is prevalent in several countries like India, France, Japan, America, Canada, Holland, Sri Lanka etc. Under this system; Citizens who attained the age of maturity elect their representatives in times of elections. These representatives will assume the deliberative and legislative powers of the government on behalf of the people.

They formulate different legislative policies in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the electorate. They are responsible and responsive to the people for their acts. They continue in office only for a definite period of time. They can be removed by the citizens in times of elections when they fail to promote the welfare of the people. Hence in indirect democracy the people rule the country not themselves directly but indirectly through the periodically elected representatives.

Respond to public opinion. Indirect or representative democracy is again classified into two types namely. 1. Presidential 2. Parliamentary. In Presidential system all executive powers are exercised by a single executive head. Ex: In USA where there is Presidential system all executive powers are concentrated in the office of the President. On the other hand, in Parliamentary system executive powers are exercised by some ministers under Prime Minister’s leadership and in the name of the President. The ministers along with the Prime Minister are responsible for their acts to the Parliament. Ex : U.K., India, Australia etc.

Question 4.
Briefly and explain about Direct democratic devices.
Answer:
Devices Direct Democracy:
There are four devices prescribed in direct democracies to enable the people to participate directly in the administrative activities of the State. Those are

Referendum
Initiative
Recall and
Plebiscite

Hence, referendum is known as “Popular Veto”. It is of two types – 1) Compulsory referendum: All the constitutional bills must be sent to the people. 2) Optional Referendum : An ordinary bill passed by the legislative may be or may not be sent to the people. However, even that ordinary bill must be sent to the people, if a definite number of people demand it. Ex: In Switzerland 30,000 people or eight cantons (States) can demand referendum on an ordinary bill.

2. Initiative :
It is another device of direct democracy. It is a method by means of which the people propose legislation i.e.; they can ask the legislature to pass a particular law. For instance, in Switzerland, if 50,000 voters request the legislature to pass a law, then the proposal is submitted to the consideration of the people. If majority of the people (30,000) approve it, then it becomes an act. Unlike referendum, initiative provides a chance to the people to start the making of law. It is of two types : (1) Formulative Initiative . People present a bill to the legislature (2) Unformulative Initivative : People present a demand to the legislature as king it to pass a bill.

3. Re Call:
It is another device of Direct Democracy. It means “Calling Back”. According to this method a specific number of voters may call back or dismiss an elected officer or a member of the legislature before the expiry of his term, if he is irresponsible. By means of this, the people can remove a representative or an officer from office when he fails to discharge his duties properly.

4. Plebiscite:
The term ’Plebiscite” is derived from a French word “Plebiscitum”, which means “decree of the people”. It is used to obtain the opinion of the people on an important political issue or when there is a dispute regarding some territory. The question of accession or secession or territory is generally solved by means of plebiscite. It is not concerned with legislation. It is not apart of legal process. It is only a democratic method of ascertaining the opinion of the people on any political issue of public importance.

Question 5.
Define Democracy and explain it’s significance.
Answer:
1. Abraham Lincoln:
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2. Lord Bryce:
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is. vested not in a particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

3. J.R. Seely:
“Democracy is a government in which every one has a share”.

Significance of Democracy :
Democracy is important from the following aspects. Democracy is the modem way of life. It is the only system of government where the personal dignity of individuals is ensured. Though democracy has been continuously adopted since the Greek city states, it became popular only after the occurrence of First and Second World Wars. At present, democracy is considered as an important device in the organisation and management of many institutions like state, government and society.

Above all, many view democracy as a moral, ideal and a noble way of life. It is the only system where the rulers as well as the ruled play a key role. Its greatest significance lies in the fact that commonest of common men and poorest of the poor are adored by the supreme rulers and administrators. The political heads, administrative bosses and the legislators at various levels treat the average citizens with great respect and honour.

Democracy is a convenient form of government at all times. Even at the height of political tensions and social compulsions, it offers peaceful and constitutional solutions.

Democracy creates a congenial atmosphere where the diverse socio-political forces interact harmoniously. In this context Lord Bryce aptly observed that people in democracy are friendly, harmonious and adjust with others irrespective of their wealth and social status. To say in a single sentence democracy provides accommodation even to the dissidents and opponents or negative viewers in arriving at decisions through C⁴ i.e., Consulation, Conciliation, Compromise and Consensus.

Question 6.
Explain any three merits and demerits of Democracy. ^QQBDS
Answer:
Merits :
Democracy has the following merits.

a) Efficient government :
Prof. Gamer described democracy as an efficient and effective government. The government in democracy carries all its activities efficiently and effectively both in normal times and1 emergencies.

c) Assures equality :
Democracy assures equality of individuals in political and economic spheres. The people living in democratic nation enjoy all the political. Civil and economic rights and privileges equally without any discrimination.

Demerits :
Democracy has the. following demerits.

a) Rule of Ignorance :
Plato criticised democracy as a rule of ignorance. Aristotle called it a perverted form of government. Anybody can become a ruler in this system and no special qualifications are prescribed for voters or rulers.

Question 7.
Define Democracy and explain its merits.
Answer:
Definitions:
1. Abraham Lincoln :
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2. Lord Bryce :
“Democracy is that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is vested not in a ‘particular class but in the members of the community as a whole”.

3. J.R. Seely:
“Democracy is a government in which every one has a share”.

Merits :
Democracy has the following merits.

d) Educates the masses:
Democracy is described as a laboratory for a large scale ex-periments in public education. The masses in democracy are educated and enlightened through public meetings, election campaigns, distribution of pamphelts, etc.

e) Promotes patriotism :
The pebple in a democracy think that the country is their own property. When the country is in difficulties, they come forward to protect the interests of the nation. Therefore democracy develops patriotic spirit in the people.

h) A rational government:
Democracy is based on the principle that no man is infallible. It adopts a process of discussion and criticism which serves as necessary correctives to the abuse of power. Besides, they safeguard the rational nature of the political system.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Democracy? Write two definitions. [A.P. 19, 18, 15]
Answer:
Democracy is form of government in which the people rule themselves directly or indirectly through their periodically elected representatives

Definitions:
1. Abraham Lincoln:
“Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people”.

2. J.R. Seely:
“Democracy is a government in which eveiy one has a share”.

Question 2.
What do you know about Direct Democracy?
Answer:
Direct democracy is a system of government in which people directly participate in the activities of the State and the Government. The people directly express their views on the government policies. Direct democratic methods are four. They are Referendum, Plebiscite, Initiative and Recall.

Question 3.
What do you understand by Representative Democracy?
Answer:
Indirect democracy is also known as representative democracy. In this type, the people exercise their governing power through their representatives who are periodically elected. The will of the state is expressed through representatives. Indirect democracy was established in Britain in the 17^th century. Now-a-days, it is existing in different countries.

Question 4.
What are the features of Democracy?
Answer:
The features of democracy are
a) Popular government.
b) Significance to ordinary man
c) Regular elections
d) Popular responsibility
e) Fundamental rights ,

Question 5.
Write any four conditions that are essential for the success of Democracy. [A.P. 19, 18]
Answer:

Sound system of Education
Independent Press
Strong Opposition
Social Equality

Question 6.
List out the devices of Direct Democracy.
Answer:
The devices of Direct Democracy are :

Referendum
Initiative
Plebiscite
Recall

Question 7.
What do you know about Referendum? [A.P. 15]
Answer:
Referendum means ‘Refer to’. This method is used to ascertain the public opinion on important legislation. In some regions, the public opinion is sought on the problems of constitutional law and ordinary law. This is called referendum. Referendum is of two types. They are i) Compulaory referendum ii) Optional referendum.

Question 8.
What is meant by Initiative? [T.S, Mar, 15]
Answer:
Initiative is a request made by the people to the legislature in framing a law on certain national problem or policy as such. After making the law, the same shall be presented for referendum. In this aspect, people in a specified number present a petition in written form to the legislature proposing a legislation. It is also of two kinds. They are i) Formulative initiative ii) Non-formulative initiative.

Question 9.
What do mean by Plebiscite?
Answer:
Plebiscite means ascertaining public opinion on certain important issues. This is not applicable to the latos and the Constitution. People’s verdict is sought on certain public problems and policies of the government. This method was first used in 1804 by Napoleon in France.

Question 10.
What is meant by Recall? [A.P. & T.S. Mar, 15]
Answer:
Recall means To call back. The representatives will be called back by the people in case they are inefficient. Hence, this method helps the representatives in discharging their responsibilities properly for fear of being called back on the grounds of inefficiency.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 8 Citizenship

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 8th Lesson Citizenship Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 8th Lesson Citizenship

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define citizenship. Describe the methods of acquiring citizenship.
Answer:
Introduction :
Citizenship is a privilege of individual residing in democratic states. People fed that citizenship enables them to lead a happy, honourable and harmonious life in the state. Citizenship instills the feelings of patriotism, sacrifice, broad outlook etc., among the people.

Definitions :
Prof. Laski:
“Citizenship is one’s contribution of instructed judgement to the public good”.

T.H. Marshall:
“Citizenship is a status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess this status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the state is endowed”.

Methods of acquiring citizenship :
There are two methods of acquiring citizenship. They are : i) Natural ii) Naturalization. The two methods may be studied as follows.

i) Natural Citizenship :
Natural Citizenship is one which is acquired by the persons without specific application or request to the authorities. It comprises three elements. They are :

i) Blood relationship (Jus Sanguinis) ii) Soil (Jus Soli) and iii) Mixed principle.

i) Jus Sanguinis – (Kinship or Blood Relationship) :
This type of Citizenship denotes acquiring citizenship by kinship or blood relationship. Under this method birth within the territory of a state entitles a person to have citizenship. Every person is treated as a citizen of the state where he is born. According to Jus Sanguinis, a child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth. Here blood relationship alone determines the Citizenship. Ex : A child born to the Indian parents will be treated as Indian citizen irrespective of its place of birth.

ii) Jus Soli (Land or Place of Birth) :
Jus Soli means acquisition of citizenship by the principle of place of birth. According to this method, citizenship is determined by the place of birth and not by parentage. It is the place of birth which determines citizenship. However this method is not more popular in modem times. It was popular in the Middle Ages when citizenship was associated with land. At present, however, this practice is observed exclusively in Argentina.

Mixed Principle :
Under this method citizenship is granted by following either of the two principles of Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli. Many states adopted both these principles. Ex : In Britain, France, and United States, the above two principles are employed simultaneously. In this context there may arise duplication of citizenship. Ex: A child born to British parents in the United States becomes an american citizen according to the practice of Jus Soli. The same child becomes a citizen of Britain according to the principle of Jus Sanguinis. In such a case, the child is given option to choose one of its citizenship, after becoming a major.

ii) Naturalised Citizenship:
Citizenship may also be acquired through naturalization. According to this method, an alien will become a citizen after fulfilling certain conditions. These conditions vary from state to state. Some of them may be summed up as follows.

1) Residence :
An alien who resides in a state for a prescribed period automatically become its citizen. Residence in any part of the state is a must for an alien. The period of residence varies from state to state. For instance it is 5 years in Britain and United States and 10 years in France respectively.

2) Choice:
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

3) Application :
An alien in a state may apply for the citizenship of that state. Then the government of that state considers his application on its merits. It grants citizenship to him with or without some conditions. These prescribed conditions refer to a minimum period of residence, good moral character, financial capability and knowledge of one of the national languages. Besides, an alien must take an oath of allegiance before he assumes the citizenship of another state.

4) Fixed Assets :
An alien who buys some portion of land or acquires some fixed property can acquire citizenship in a state.

5) Service (Public or Private):
An alien who serves in the government of a state or in a private recognised enterprise could become the citizen of that state. He is entitled for such citizenship if he serves in the public or private authorised departments. He may also be given Citizenship if the renders meritorious service in another state.

6) Marriage :
An alien woman acquires citizenship of a state when she marries the citizen of that state. In some countries when a person marries an alien, Citizenship of either of the husband or wife is acquired. For instance, a British lady will acquire Indian citizenship if she marries an Indian citizen. Japanese women do not lose their citizenship even if they marry persons of alien states. The alien person on the other hand, acquires the citizenship of Japan if he marries a Japanese lady.

In this context it may be noted that an alien who receives the citizenship of the new state, he will have to forego his native citizenship. In other words no one is allowed to have dual citizenships simultaneously.

Question 2.
Explain the various qualities of a good Citizen.
Answer:
According to Aristotle good citizens make good state. This is due to the fact that good citizens imbibe many noble qualities. Lord Bryce cited three qualities of a good citizen, namely, conscience, intelligence, and self control. On the whole, a good citizen will have the following qualities.

1) Good Character :
Good character is essential for a good citizen. A good citizen should be courageous, just, helpful, kind-hearted, sympathetic, truthful and virtuous in letter and spirit.

2) Sound health:
A good citizen should have good health and strength. Healthy citizens make the nation healthy. Only a sound body will have a sound mind. Sound body and mind of a citizen paves the way for the progress of the state in many spheres.

3) Intelligence and education :
Proper education is another quality of a citizen. The citizen should be well-enlightened, fully aware and informed of his rights and responsibilities. He must be intelligent enough to identify good and bad. He will not be emotional in examining the events. In this regard education enables him to play a proper role in the society. An intelligent citizen will be able to understand the problems of the state in a proper way.

4) Self control :
A good citizen will have moderate temperment. He will have self-control in his public activities. Self control and confidence make him to lead a disciplined life. He will not indulge in inhuman activities.

5) Public spirit:
A good citizen should have broad and liberal outlook. He should be ready to take active part in public affairs. He should be intelligent in enjoying his rights and responsibilities. He should have active participation in the social activities. He should have public-spirit and ready to offer his services for the collective welfare of the society.

6) Self-sacrifice:
A good citizen must possess self sacrifice. He must subordinate his self-interest to the interests of the community. He must be imbibed by the spirit of service and devotion to the society, government and state.

7) Honest exercise of franchise:
Honest exercise of one’s franchise is another essential quality of a good citizen. Self interest or sectional interest in terms of class, religion or community act as a hurdle to good citizenship.

8) Sincere performance of obligations :
A good citizen performs his obligations sincerely and faithfully. He extends co-operation to the authorities in the discharge of their obligations. He pays his taxes to the various governmental organizations promptly and properly.

9) Right ordering of loyalties :
A good citizen brings about a right ordering of his loyalties to the family, class, caste, club, trade union, region and nation. He avoids conflicts between various associations by assigning priorities. He sacrifices his self interest for the sake of wider purposes. When there arises a conflict between the interests of the family and the locality, one must sacrifice the interests of the family for the sake of the locality.

Question 3.
Describe the various hindrances to Good Citizenship.
Answer:
There are various hindrances to the growth of good citizenship in a state. These relate to caste system, communalism, ignorance, illiteracy, poverty, social discriminations etc. The main hindrances to good citizenship are discussed as below.

1) Laziness :
Citizens in many states do not prefer to work hard. They remain narrow minded. They have little interest in working for the progress of the nation. They create havoc on many occasions in the state. Many of them are affected by apathy, inactivity, indifference and indolence. Laziness leads to the neglecting of civic duties. Ultimately it makes citizens indifferent in public affairs.

2) Ignorance and Illiteracy :
Ignorance and illiteracy are regarded as the greatest obstacles to the good citizenship. Ignorant and illiterate citizens do not understand their rights and responsibilities properly. Laski rightly stated that citizenship consists in the contribution of one’s instructed judgment to the public good. Ignorant and illiterate persons are unable to make any such contribution. They don’t have an enlightened interest in public affairs in the absence of education. Democracy degenerates into a mob rule in the hands of ignorant and illiterate persons.

3) Poverty:
Poverty is the root cause of all evils. Good citizenship cannot develop in a country where vast inequalities of wealth exist. Poverty leads to apathy and indifference in public life.

4) Ill health:
Ill health is another hindrance to the good citizenship. Because unhealthy citizens cannot carry on their services to the good of the state and society.

5) Narrow Political Interests :
Political parties, which are essential in democracy, play a crucial role in promoting the ideals of good citizenship. But many members of these parties work for the party and not for the society or the nation. Leaders of various parties keep their attention only on capturing power. They show least regard to the promotion of peoples welfare. Some political parties even create rivalries and satisfier among the people. Sometimes interests of the community are sacrificed for the sake of the party.

6) Communalism and Casteism :
Communalism and casteism are two important handicaps in the path of good citizenship. Caste system and class distinctions are especially responsible for bringing out a discord among the people. These distinctions hamper social and political solidarity of the state. .

7) Selfishness :
Selfishness and good citizenship cannot go together. Selfish citizens will confine their thoughts and actions to their own private benefits. They spare no time and energy for the well being of others including their mother land.

8) Indifference:
Indifference is another great obstacle which makes citizens indolent and lazy. Such citizens are least bothered about the contemporary happenings. They do not participate in the dynamics of the state mechanism. They ignore the evil effects of backwardness, dirt, disease and poverty. Lastly, they lack the character of good citizens and suffer from total aversion to public work.

Question 4.
How many types of citizenship are there? Elucidate.
Answer:
There are three types of Citizenship. They are : (i) Single Citizenship (ii) Dual Citizenship and (iii) Global or Universal Citizenship.

i) Single Citizenship:
Single Citizenship implies possession of one type of citizenship, identical rights, privileges, and immunities by the citizens. Citizens enjoy this type of citizenship without any discrimination. It is prevalent in many states in the modem period. For instance the constitution of India provided for single citizenship to every Indian citizen irrespective of his place of birth, residence etc.,

ii) Dual Citizenship :
Dual citizenship means possession of two citizenships in two States. It is in vogue in some developed and developing countries. For instance, children born to American citizens in other states acquire natural citizenship in both the states – one in their parent American State and another in the State where they are born. However, persons having dual citizenship are not entitled to the special privileges. They are subject to the laws of both countries. Dual citizenship applies to the children until they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of one of the two States.

iii) Global or Universal Citizenship :
Global or Universal Citizenship is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national politics. The dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created a great awareness among the people all over the world. The advancement in communications, science, technology, and other spheres transformed human life in a miraculous way.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the two methods of acquiring natural citizenship.
Answer:
i) Jus Sanguinis – (Kinship or Blood Relationship):
This type of Citizenship denotes acquiring citizenship by kinship or blood relationship. Under this method birth within the territory of a state entitles a person to have citizenship. Every person is treated as a citizen of the state where he is born. According to Jus Sanguinis, a child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth. Here blood relationship alone determines the Citizenship. Ex : A child born to the Indian parents will be treated as Indian citizen irrespective of its place of birth.

ii) Jus Soli (Land or Place of Birth):
Jus Soli means acquisition of citizenship by the principle of place of birth. According to this method, citizenship is determined by the place of birth and not by parentage. It is the place of birth which determines citizenship. However this method is not more popular in modem times. It was popular in the Middle Ages when citizenship was associated with land. At present, however, this practice is observed exclusively in Argentina.

Question 2.
What are the differences between Citizen and Alien?
Answer:
Citizen:
Aristotle defines a Citizen as “One who has a share in the deliberative functions of the state and in the election of its officials.

Alien :
An alien is a person living in a state but owing allegiance to another state.

Differences between Citizen and Alien :

Citizen	Alien
1. A citizen resides in a particular State on permanent basis.	1. An alien resides in a State on temporary basis.
2. A citizen owes loyalty to the State in which he resides.	2. An alien owes allegiance to the State to which he belongs.
3. A citizen is entitled to enjoy civil and political rights.	3. An alien will have civil rights only.
4. A citizen can criticize the policies and programmes of the government.	4. An alien has no right to criticize the policies and programmes of the government.
5. A citizen will have both the rights and responsibilities.	5. An alien has more responsibilities than the rights.

Question 3.
How is naturalised citizenship acquired?
Answer:
Naturalised Citizenship :
Citizenship may also be acquired through naturalization. According to this method, an alien will become a citizen after fulfilling certain conditions. These conditions vary from state to state. Some of them may be summed up as follows.

2) Choice:
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

3) Application :
An alien in a state may apply for the citizenship of that state. Then the government of that state considers his application on its merits. It grants citizenship to him with or without some conditions. These prescribed conditions refer to a minimum period of residence, good moral character, financial capability, and knowledge of one of the national languages. Besides, an alien must take an oath of allegiance before he assumes the citizenship of another state.

4) Fixed Assets :
An alien who buys some portion of land or acquires some fixed property can acquire citizenship in a state.

Question 4.
How citizenship is lost?
Answer:
Citizens loose their citizenship under the following conditions :
1) Renunciation :
A person is deprived of his citizenship, if he wishes to become the citizen of another state. One will lose the citizenship of one’s parent state and may become the citizen of a foreign state by naturalization. In India, the Constitution prescribes that a person who voluntarily acquires Citizenship of any other state will no longer be an Indian citizen.

2) Marriage :
Generally a woman loses her citizenship when she marries an alien. However some states allow retention of citizenship. For instance in Britain, there is an option to retain British citizenship who marries an alien.

3) Accepting Foreign Service :
A person may lose his citizenship when he enters into the service of another state. If a person accepts a permanent job in the government of a foreign state, he foregoes the citizenship of his native state.

4) Obliging Foreign Decorations or Titles :
When a citizen obliges to receive foreign decorations or titles, it may lead to the forfeiture of his Citizenship.

5) Prolonged Absence :
Prolonged absence in the native state beyond a certain period may lead to the loss of citizenship. In some states like France and Germany citizens who are absent themselves from their native country for more than ten years will loose their citizenship.

6) Treason or Crime :
Involvement of a citizen in a serious crime and subsequent proof of his action will also lead to the loss of citizenship. Especially those persons who directly or indirectly participate or extend assistance to anti-state, anti-social and anti- govemmental activities, will loose their Citizenship by a special notification to that effect.

7) Desertion from Army:
Desertion from army thereby jeopardizing the security of a state leads to the forfeiture of citizenship.

Question 5.
Explain any three conditions for securing naturalized citizenship.
Answer:
1) Residence :
An alien who resides in a state for a prescribed period automatically become its citizen. Residence in any part of the state is a must for an alien. The period of residence varies from state to state. For instance it is 5 years in Britain and United States and 10 years in France respectively.

2) Choice:
The children of alien parents could receive citizenship of the state according to their option and choice.

Question 6.
Briefly describe about the Global or Universal citizenship.
Answer:
Global or Universal Citizenship is the latest phenomena in the contemporary international and national politics. The dramatic events that took place after 1980s and 1990s created a great awareness among the people all over the world. The advancement in communications, science, technology and other spheres transformed human life in a miraculous way.

Liberalization :
Privatization and Globalization (LPG) have become a boon to them. The various governments in both the advanced and Third World States have shifted their priorities ranging from defence to the welfare and well being of common men. As a result, intellectuals belonging to different walks of life have been given encouragement to go abroad and reap ample benefits.

It is in the above circumstances that large number of citizen have gone abroad for educational, commercial and research purposes. Thousands of them have either settled in foreign states or remained there on work permits. They have earned a lot of money. They remain instrumental in bringing their income to the native states. In the process they have been seeking citizenship in their native state and in the states where they are rendering services. Some states have contemplated the idea of conferring dual citizenship to their citizens in other states. Such an idea became a basis of global Citizenship.

Question 7.
Suggest the remedies for removing the hindrances to good citizenship.
(or)
Point out the ways for overcoming the hindrance to good citizenship.
(or)
How to overcome the obstacles (or) Hindrances (or) Hurdles to good citizenship?
Answer:
In order to remove the hindrances of good citizenship, efforts should be made by the parties, people, press and the state. Laski said that good citizenship implies “the contribution of one’s instructed judgement to public good”. The following are some ways to remove hindrances to good citizenship.

1) Solving People’s Grievances :
First of all government should address the basic grievances of the people. Issues of poverty and unemployment should be tackled with great commitment. Good citizenship can’t be realized when people’s basic needs are not satisfied.

2) Education and awareness :
Education, which is the most important need of the hour should be given top priority. Steps should be taken to spread education and awareness among the people. Citizens must be provided with such instructions which make possible the understanding of human life. They must be trained for expressing their wishes and aspirations which they come across in their life.

3) Efforts of Leaders:
Citizens should always feel that government itself cannot provide succour and rescue them on every occasion. The leaders at various levels should come forward and co-operate with the government in promoting good citizenship.

On the whole, Lord Bryce suggested two types of remedies for overcoming the hindrances of good citizenship. They are : 1. Mechanical and 2. Ethical. The first relates to the laws of the state and second relates to the character of the citizens.
Mechanical Remedies improve the machinery of the state to make it more useful to the public. The entire social structure has to be built up on the principles of equality, Citizenship, and democracy. Citizens should be allowed to utilise their civil and political rights to their maximum extent.

Ethical remedies enhance the general character of citizens in the state. Ignorance and narrow party interests must be avoided. On the other hand, honesty and literacy would induce the citizens to take active role in public life.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define citizenship.
Answer:
i) Prof. Laski defines “Citizenship is one’s contribution of instructed judgement to the public good”.

ii) T.H. Marshall defines “Citizenship is a status bestowed on those who are full members of a community. All who possess this status are equal with respect to the rights and duties with which the state is endowed”.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Jus Sanguinis?
Answer:
Acquiring citizenship by kinship or blood relation is called Jus Sanguinis. According to Jus Sanguinis, a child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth. Blood relation alone determines the citizenship in Jus Sanguinis method.

Question 3.
What do you mean by ‘Jus Soli’?
Answer:
Jus Soli means acquisition of citizenship by the principle of place of birth. According to this method, a child acquires the citizenship of a State, where it boms. It is the place of birth which determines citizenship. This method is not more popular in modem times. At present, this method is observed exclusively in Argentina.

Question 4.
Who is an alien?
Answer:
An Alien is a person living in a state but owing Allegiance to another State. Aliens are entitled to such rights and obligations which are incorporated in the covenants of the Foreign State. Ex: In America, Aliens must obey the laws and pay taxes just like the American Citizens.

Question 5.
Write about any two conditions for acquiring natural citizenship.
Answer:
The two conditions for acquiring natural citizenship are :
i) Jus Sanguinis (Right of blood) :
According to Jus Sanguinis, A child acquires the citizenship of the parents irrespective of its place of birth.

ii) Jus Soli (Right of Soil) :
According to this method, citizenship is determined by the place of birth and not by parentage.

Question 6.
List out two conditions of loss of citizenship.
Answer:
i) Renunciation :
A person is deprived of his citizenship, if he wishes to become the citizen of any other State.

ii) Marriage :
Generally a woman loses her citizenship when she marries an alien.

Question 7.
Mention any two qualities of a good Citizen. [A.P. Mar, 15]
Answer:
i) Good Character :
Good character is essential for a good citizen. A good citizen should be courageous, just, helpful, kind-hearted, sympathetic, truthful, and virtuous in letter and spirit.

ii) Sound Health :
A good citizen should have good health and strength. Healthy citizens make the nation healthy and wealthy.

Question 8.
Explain the significance of citizenship.
Answer:
Citizenship remains significant when the fundamental rights enshrined in the constitution are available to all the citizens. Further, Citizenship ensures the citizens many political rights. Citizens could exercise their vote in elections to the various representative bodies. They could also contest for membership of legislative bodies. Above all, citizens alone are eligible for appointment to the highest offices in the executive like President, Vice-President, Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts etc.

Question 9.
In what way do ignorance and illiteracy act as hindrances to good citizenship?
Answer:
Ignorance and illiteracy are regarded as the greatest obstacles to the good citizenship. Ignorant and illiterate citizens do not know their rights and responsibilities properly. They are unable to make any contribution to the State. Democracy degenerates into mob rule in the hands of ignorant and illiterate persons.

Question 10.
What are the suggestions of Lord Bryce for overcoming the hindrances of good citizenship?
Answer:
Lord Bryce suggested two types of remedies for overcoming the hindrances of good j citizenship. They are: i) Mechanical ii) Ethical. Mechanical remedies improve the machinery of the State to make it more useful to the public. Ethical remedies enhance the general character of citizens in the State.

Question 11.
Write short notes on Dual Citizenship.
Answer:
Dual Citizenship means possession of two citizenships in two States. Ex : Children bom to American citizens in other States acquire citizenship in both the States – one in their parent State and the other in the State, where there are born. Dual citizenship applies to the children until they attain adulthood. Later they have to choose citizenship of any one of the two states.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 7 Justice

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 7th Lesson Justice Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 7th Lesson Justice

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Justice and describe various types of Justice.
Answer:
Introduction:
Justice is a dynamic concept in contemporary society. It has received the attention of several political philosophers, social reformers, economic thinkers and psychological experts. They have considered the basic instinct of individuals belonging to the various sections residing in several parts of the world. Besides, almost all states, irrespective of their political and economic doctrines, have been striving to achieve justice and to establish a society based on justice.

Meaning :
The word “Justice” is derived from a Latin word “Jus” which means “to bind”

Definitions :
We may advance some of the definitions of Justice in the following lines.
1. Plato:
“Justice is giving to everyman his due. It is a combination of reason, courage, appetite and will in terms of the state”.

2. Aristotle:
“Justice is no other than each and every individual in society discharging his moral duties.”

3. Caphalous :
“Justice means speaking the truth and paying one’s debts.”

4. Polymarchus :
“Justice means to help friends and harm enemies.”

5. Barker :
“Justice means a combination and coordination of political values.”

Types of Justice
There are different types of Justice. They relate to Natural, Social, Political, and Legal spheres. Let us analyse these types of Justice.

1. Natural Justice :
Natural Justice is based on the notion that every person in the world possesses some rights for availing the natural resources. Natural resources provide support to the life of each and every creature on earth. As the human beings are the only rational creatures, it is their responsibility to see that natural resources have to be judiciously exploited. Human beings must keep in mind the requirements of future generations in this regard.

2. Social Justice :
Social Justice envisages a balance between rights of individuals and social control. It facilitates the fulfillment of the legitimate expectations of the individuals under the existing laws. It ensures several benefits and extends protection to the individuals against the interference or encroachment from others in society. It is consistent with the unity and the integrity of the nation. It fulfills the needs of the society.

Social Justice enforces the principle of equality before law. It also ensures eradication of social evils like poverty, unemployment, starvation, disease, etc. It also extends protection to the downtrodden and weaker sections of society. Ultimately it provides those conditions essential for the all round development of individuals.

3. Political Justice :
Political Justice symbolises politicl equality. It implies provision of political rights to all the adult citizens in a state. It facilitates free and fair participation of the citizens in the governance of the country. It is manifested to the full extent in times of elections. It allows the citizens for their active participation in day-to-day administration. It is based on the premise that everyone is counted as one and none for more than one. It may be noted that political justice prevails in the State when the following conditions are prevalent

Rule of law
Independent Judiciary
Popular elections to the representative bodies
Political parties
Freedom of press and assembly
Democratic rule etc.

4. Economic Justice :
Economic Justice refers to the absence of economic discrimination between individuals on irrational and unnatural grounds. It stands for the equal treatment of individuals irrespective of differences in the income, money, wealth, property etc. In its positive aspect, it implies payment of adequate emoluments to the workers strongly abhorring disparities in the distribution of wealth and incomes. It does not allow exploitation of the weaker sections. It sees that nobody is deprived of the basic necessities of life. It hints out that everyone must be provided with adequate food, clothing, shelter and other minimum needs. It conceives just economic order in the society. It supports the principle “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”

5. Legal Justice:
Legal Justice is manifested in the laws of the state. It is supplemented by customs of the society. It is embodied in the Constitution and legislative enactments in a state. It determines the legal contours of Justice. Legal Justice basically has two implications. Firstly, it implies that there is just application of the laws in society on the basis of rule of law. There will be no discrimination between individuals in the applications of laws. Secondly, laws are made in consonance with the principles of natural justice.

Question 2.
What is meant by Justice? How is it evolved?
Answer:
Meaning :
The word “Justice is derived from a Latin word “JUS” which means ” to bind”.

It refers to the formulation and implementation of rules and regulations endorsed by the constitution and the judicial organisations.

Development of Justice :
In ancient India, Justice, being associated with dharma as enunciated in Hindu scriptures, was considered to be the duty of the King. The King used to maintain a just social order based on dharma. It was the primary duty of the King to maintain justice by punishing the wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous persons.

Justice normally means giving each person his due. However, its understanding differs from person to a person. Justice is viewed from the human aspect of every individual. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, stated that human beings possess dignity. When all persons ‘are endowed with dignity, they will be entitled to adequate opportunities for developing their talents and for pursuing their goals. Thus, Justice demands that each individual should be given equal consideration.

In Medieval age St. Augustine derived the concept of Justice from Plato. He emphasized on the proper relations between individuals for the harmonious working of society. Thomas Aquinas was considered as the first political philosopher who separated Justice from religion. By 16^th century, the concept of justice got completely secularized. The social contractualist like Hobbes identified Justice with the orders of the sovereign.

His successors John Locke, Rousseau, Emmanuel Kant, and others regarded Justice as a synthesis of liberty and equality. The advocates of Natural law developed the idea of individual justice. The Socialists conceived justice from economic point of view. While the conventionalists explained the concept of justice from individual perspective, the modernists viewed it from social perspective.

There is no single precise definition to the concept of justice. It was defined and discussed by various writers in different ways basing on the place, time context, culture, etc. It is considered as the sum total of the principles and beliefs advanced for the survival of the society. These principles and beliefs in turn led to the making of rights, freedoms and laws.

Question 3.
Write an essay on Social Justice.
Answer:
Social Justice is generally equated with the notion of equality. Equality is an indisputable and inherent element of social justice. The term ‘social justice’ has wider meaning. ‘Social justice’ connotes fairness, mutual obligation and responsibility in a society. It firmly believes that everyone is responsible to the others. Everyone must be provided adequate opportunities. Social Justice, in brief, aims at achieving a just society by eliminating injustice. It prevails when people have the belief of sharing the things in the society. They must be entitled to equitable treatment, human rights and fair allocation of common resources.

In this context modem political scientists like John Rawls and David Miller gave two prominent statements.

John Rawls advanced the theory of social justice commonly known as “Justice or Fariness”. To him, social justice implies equal access to the liberties, rights and opportunities as well as taking care of the interests of the deprived and disadvantaged sections of the society. He maintained that what is just or unjust in the human activities is determined on the basis of utility of such activities. He stated that social justice enables human beings equal access to civil liberties and human rights to lead a happy and healthy life. He emphasised that disadvantaged groups in society will be taken care of through the extension of social justice.

John Rawls concept of social justice is built around the idea of a social contract whereby all people sign a covenant for following and obeying certain rules for the betterment of the society as a whole. These rules or principles specify the basic rights and obligations involving the main political and social institutions. They regulate the allocation of benefits arising from social co-operation.

David Miller pointed out that social justice is concerned with the distribution of good (advantages) and bad (disadvantages) in society. He further analysed more specifically how these things are distributed in the society. According to him, social justice is concerned with the allocation of resources among people by social and political institutions. People, through social justice, receive many benefits in the fields of education, employment, wealth, health, welfare, transport etc.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the major concepts of Justice.
Answer:
Meaning :
The word “Justice” is derived from a Latin word “JUS” which means “to bind”.

Definition :
“Justice means speaking the truth and paying one’s debts”. – Caphalous

Major Concepts of Justice :
There are two major concepts of Justice. They are i) Numerial concept ii) Geometrical concept. They may be explained as follows :

1. Numerical concept:
Numerical concept of justice regards that everyone has equal share. The ancient Greek city states adopted this concept in public matters. The rulers of these city states filled up various offices with as many persons as maximum possible to demonstrate equality. They have not considered special knowledge, qualifications etc., for holding public offices. Jeremy Bentham, a famous British political philosopher, advocated this concept in modem times. He stated thus : “Everyone is to count for one, nobody for more than one.” Many modem liberal democratic states have been functioning on the basis of this concept.

2. Geometrical concept:
Geometrical concept is based on the notion of proportionate equality. It advocates equal share to equals and unequal share to unequals. It means that the distribution of power and patronage in public offices should be allocated in proportion to the worth or contribution of the individuals. Plato and Aristotle favoured this concept. Aristotle stated this concept in the following words: “If flutes are to be distributed, they should be distributed only among those who have the capacity of flute playing.” Efforts were made for allocating of benefits and responsibilities on equal basis keeping in view the worth of the recipients.

Question 2.
How is justice evolved?
Answer:
In ancient India, Justice, being associated with dharma as enunciated in Hindu scriptures, was considered to be the duty of the King. The King used to maintain a just social order based on dharma. It was the primary duty of the King to maintain justice by punishing the wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous persons.

The advocates of Natural law developed the idea of individual justice. The Socialists conceived justice from economic point of view. While the conventionalists explained the concept of justice from individual perspective, the modernists viewed it from social perspective.

There is no single precise definition to the concept of justice. It was defined and discussed by various writers in different ways basing on the place, time context, culture etc. It is considered as the sum total of the principles and beliefs advanced for the survival of the society. These principles and beliefs in turn led to the making of rights, freedoms and laws.

Question 3.
Describe any three types of Justice.
Answer:
1. Natural Justice :
Natural Justice is based on the notion that every person in the world possesses some rights for availing the natural resources. Natural resources provide support to the life of each and every creature on earth. As the human beings are the only rational creatures, it is their responsibility to see that natural resources have to be judiciously exploited. Human beings must keep in mind the requirements of future generations in this regard.

Social Justice enforces the principle of equality before law. It also ensures eradication of social evils like poverty, unemployment, starvation, disease etc. It also extends protection to the downtrodden and weaker sections of society. Ultimately it provides those conditions essential for the all round development of individuals.

3. Political Justice:
Political Justice symbolises political equality. It implies provision of political rights to all the adult citizens in a state. It facilitates free and fair participation of the citizens in the governance of the country. It is manifested to the full extent in times of elections. It allows the citizens for their active participation in day-to-day administration. It is based on the premise that everyone is counted as one and none for more than one. It may be noted that political justice prevails in the State when the following conditions are prevalent

Rule of law
Independent Judiciary
Popular elections to the representative bodies
Political parties
Freedom of press and assembly
Democratic rule etc.

Question 4.
Point out any three sources of Justice.
Answer:
Meaning :
The word “Justice” is derived from a Latin word “JUS” which means “to bind”.

Definition :
“Justice means speaking the truth and paying one’s debts” – Caphalous Sources of Justice:

Earnest Barker gives four sources of Justice. They are mentioned as below.

Nature
Ethics
Religion
Economic elements

1. Nature:
The Greek stoics perceived nature to be a source of Justice. Their perception of nature was a combination of moral philosophy and religious beliefs. For them nature, God and reason were inseparable entities. They pointed out that men who lived according to nature shared similar views of reason and God. They viewed that nature embodies three things. They are

1. Man should be free, 2. Man should be treated equally, 3. Man should be associated with his fellow beings by the common element of reason. These three things in turn have remained as a basis for liberty, equality and fraternity in society in course of time.

2. Ethics :
Idealist thinkers like Plato, Emanuel Kant, Thomas Hilly Green, Earnest Barker and other propounded that justice originated from ethical practices. They pointed out that values accepted by the society over a period of time have intum become the impersonal source of positive Justice. The state enforced this positive justice in course of time.

3. Religion :
Religion is regarded as another source of Justice. This source has been in force since medieval age. The church authorities held the notion that it was God who propounded the notions of justice, right and wrong. God, through church, initiated the concept of justice as the rule of the theory of might. Thomas Acqinas a philosopher turned saint believed that the Church is the manifestation of religion. According to him, life based on laws is the best one. The king must lead the people in right directions. He must exercise his authority in compliance to the church authority.

4. Economic elements :
Economic elements are also treated as a source of justice. These elements attained significance with the advent of industrial revolution which led to glaring economic disparities between different sections of society. Industrial revolution, inspite of its tremendous achievements, led to the growth of miseries, poverty and immorality in society. It forced the people to have a strong zeal of enterprise. Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus and other classical economists analysed justice in terms of economic factors.

Later, revolutionary thinkers like Karl Marx and Frederich Engles strongly advocated the role of economic elements as a basis to the justice. These thinkers began to prove the deficiencies in capitalist society. They argued that justice prevails only when economic equality is achieved through a classless society. But their

Question 5.
How is social Justice pursued?
Answer:
Social justice remains a mirage in a society having glaring disparities between different sections. Justice can’t be understood in absolute terms. Justice along with equality is a strong desire of every one in modem society. A society dominated by unjust relations between different sections can not achieve progress. In such a society the disadvantaged and deprived sections develop frustration in their day to day life. This leads to mutual conflicts between the majority poor and a few affluent persons. Hence a just society which ensures basic minimum facilities to all to lead happy and secure life is a must. In such a society adequate opportunities will be provided to various sections for realizing their goals.

Though many agree with the veiw that the State should lend a helping hand to the disadvantaged sections of the society to attain some degree of parity with others, there remains a disagreement over the methods pursued for achieving the goal. Extensive debate has taken place in the contemporary society. Such a debate revolved on the topic of inviting open competition through Free State organisation or private enterprises. But the fact lies in between the two. Both state and private involvement are necessary for achieving social justice in a state.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Justice.
Answer:
“Justice is giving to every man his due. It is a combination of reason, courage, appetite and will in terms of the state” -Plato

Question 2.
What is Distributive Justice? [A.P. 19, 18]
Answer:
Distributive justice implies the distribution of goods and wealth of citizens by the state on merit basis. Aristotle stated that Justice is a sort of proportion. He regarded it as the most powerful instrument against revolutions. But modern writers like John Rawls denied Aristotle’s view. He pointed out that inequalities are inherent in the society. He remarked that inequalities must be balanced by some restrictive arrangements in the political system.

Question 3.
What is Corrective Justice?
Answer:
Corrective justice comprises restoring each person the lost rights due to the infringement of his rights by others. Aristotle viewed this justice as essentially negative which is concerned with voluntary commercial transactions like hire, sale and furnishing of property. In brief, corrective justice embodies moral excellence of individuals.

Question 4.
How are economic elements considered as a source of Justice?
Answer:
Economic elements are considered to be one of the important sources of Justice. These elements attained significance with the advent of industrial revolution which led to the vast economic disparities between different sections of the people.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Political Justice?
Answer:
Political Justice symbolises political equality. It implies provision of political rights to all the adult citizens in a state. It facilitates free and fair participation of the citizens in the governance of the country. It is manifested to the full extent in times of elections. It allows the citizens for their active participation in day-to-day administration. It is based on the premise that everyone is counted as one and none for more than one. It may be noted that political justice prevails in the State when the following conditions are prevalent 1. Rule of law 2. Independent Judiciary 3. Popular elections to the representative bodies 4. Political parties 5. Freedom of press and assembly 6. Democratic rule etc.

Question 6.
What is meant by Social Justice? [A.P. & T.S. Mar. 15]
Answer:
Social Justice envisages a balance between rights of individuals and social control. It facilitates the fulfillment of the legitimate expectations of the individuals under the existing laws. It ensures several benefits and extends protection to the individuals against the interference or encroachment from others in society. It is consistent with the unity and the integrity of the nation. It fulfills the needs of the society.

Question 7.
What are the implications of Legal Justice?
Answer:
Legal Justice has two implications

It implies that there is just application of the laws in the society on the basis of rule of law.
Laws are made in accordance with the principle of Natural Justice.

Question 8.
What are the views of John Rawls on Social Justice? [A.P. Mar 18]
Answer:
John Rawls Admitted that:

Social Justice implies equal access to the liberties, rights and opportunities to the deprived sections of the society.
Social Justice is built around the idea of a social contract committed by the people for obeying certain rules.

Question 9.
Point out the views of David Miller on Social Justice?
Answer:
David Miller pointed out that social justice is concerned with the distribution of good (advantages) and bad (disadvantages) in society. He further analysed more specifically how these things are distributed in society. According to him, social justice is concerned with the allocation of resources among people by social and political institutions. People, through social justice, receive many benefits in the fields of education, employment, wealth, health, welfare, transport etc. However social justice has some negative repercussions. These relate to the interference of government in the private life and prescription of compulsory military service to individuals.

Miller’s theory applied to both public and private spheres. His theory regards social justice as a social virtue that speaks of what a person possesses and what he will owe to others in society.

Question 10.
In what respect is religion considered as a source of Justice?
Answer:
Religion is regarded as another source of Justice. This source has been in force since medieval age. The church authorities held the notion that it was God who propounded the notions of justice, right and wrong. God, through church, initiated the concept of justice as the rule of the theory of might. Thomas Acqinas a philosopher turned saint believed that the Church is the manifestation of religion. According to him, life based on laws is the best one. The king must lead the people in right directions. He must exercise his authority in compliance to the church authority.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 6 Rights and Responsibilities

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 6th Lesson Rights and Responsibilities Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 6th Lesson Rights and Responsibilities

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Rights. Describe the Civil and Political Rights.
Answer:
Introduction:
Rights are the essential conditions for the development of the personality of individuals. They are upheld by the laws of the state. They are regarded as a power or privilege which the law invests in a person. They are treated as the sum total of the opportunities meant for enhancing one’s personality. Individuals can not achieve progress in the absence of the rights.

Definitions of Rights :
Political scientists have defined the term ‘Right’ in several ways. Some of their definitions are explained below :

1. Earnest Barker:
“Rights are the external conditions necessary for the development of the capacities of the personality of the individual.”

2. Beni Prasad:
“Rights are nothing more and nothing less than those social conditions which are necessary for the development of personality of individuals.”

3. Bosanquet:
“A right is a claim recognised by the society and enforced by the state.”

4. T.H. Green :
“Rights are those powers claimed and recognized as contributory to the common good.”

5. H.J. Laski :
“Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best.”

Civil Rights :
Civil rights aim at providing basic conditions for individuals to lead a happy and dignified social life. These rights are considered vital for a civilized society. Social life becomes impossible in their absence.

Individuals in a civilized society enjoy the following Civil rights. These are

1) Right to life :
This is the most important civil right. T.H. Green considered it as the most fundamental civil right. This right provides security to the individual’s life. Individuals can not lead their lives in the absence of this right. This right is based on the premise that the life of an individual is valuable not only to himself, but also to the society and the state as a whole. Hence it prescribes at large the state to extend protection to the life of individuals. However, it empowers the state to impose some reasonable restrictions upon the individuals. The state can insist any person to sacrifice his life for the sake of the nation. This right also includes the right of self-defence.

2) Right to liberty:
This right enables individuals to have freedom in various walks of life. It makes their lives worth living. It enables them to develop their personality in various spheres. It includes various freedoms such as freedom of movement, speech, expression, thought, residence etc.

3) Right to equality:
This right implies that individuals are equal before law. It forbids discrimination on the basis of one’s caste, colour, creed, education, region, race, religion, wealth etc. It enables equal treatment to all persons. It provides scope for uniform application of laws. It enables equal opportunities to all persons in social, economic and political fields.

4) Right to property:
This right enables every individual to acquire, enjoy, donate or inherit the property. It is essential to the individual for securing higher standards of living. This right is crucial for the growth of individual’s personality.

5) Right to family :
Family is a fundamental social institution. This right enables individuals to maintain family relations in society. Consequently, individuals will have freedom to marry persons of their choice. They will have choice to procreate children and rear their offspring. However, the state can impose certain restrictions upon this right keeping in view the national interests. For example, until recent times China imposed severe restrictions against their citizens in the size of their families. Recently it has made some amendments in this regard.

6) Right to religion :
This right allows the individuals to have freedom to practice, propagate and profess any religion of their choice. Every individual is at liberty to preach or practice the religious doctrines as they like. The secular states provide religious freedoms to their citizens.

7) Right to contract :
This right provides freedom to every individual to enter into contract or legal arrangements with others regarding his life, property and work. It regulates the two parties in carrying their contracts in letter and spirit. The state recognizes only those contracts which are helpful to the common well being of the people.

8) Right to education :
In the modem era education is regarded as vital to every individual. Uneducated and innocent individuals cannot play an active role in public affairs. Similarly, illiterate persons cannot fully make use of their abilities. Education and literacy enable the people to understand the problems of the society and policies of the government. This right guarantees a minimum level of education to every citizen in democratic states.

9) Right to form associations and unions :
This right enables individuals to form associations and unions for realising some specific objectives. Individuals may join, continue or keep away from the membership of associations according to their will and pleasure. The State is empowered to impose restrictions against those associations which ignore the welfare of the nation.

10) Right to constitutional remedies :
Civil rights are meaningless in the absence of this right. This right is essential to every individual for safeguarding his rights. This right empowers a person (who was deprived of his liberty due to the intervention or manhandling by others including the government) to seek justice and relief from the concerned judicial organizations. The affected individuals are authorised to approach an appropriate court for correcting such imbalance. In this regard the higher judicial organizations issue several writs and effectively check such tendencies. These writs are in the form of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo-warranto and Certiorari etc.

Political Rights :
Political rights are those rights which enable the individuals to participate in the political affairs of the state.

The following are the important political rights :
1) Right to vote :
Right to vote is the most important political right enjoyed by the citizens in modem democratic states. It serves as a powerful weapon for adult citizens in choosing their representatives to various legislative bodies. It makes them as real sovereign. All the citizens are entitled to this right without any discrimination based on creed, colour, language, race, region, religion, sex etc. However, persons such as aliens and minors are deprived of this right.

2) Right to contest in elections :
This right empowers the citizens to contest as candidates to various legislative bodies in the state. Especially this right enables those, who have political sagacity, enthusiasm and dynamic nature, to actively participate in the political dynamics of the state. As a result, it increases political enthusiasm among the citizens. Such an element is considered as a base of democratic polity.

3) Right to hold public offices :
This right provides opportunities to the citizens to hold various public offices for a definite period. It gives no scope for exclusion of citizens or conferring special privileges to some at the cost of others. This helps the citizens to exercise authority in a dignified manner.

4) Right to petition :
This right enables the citizens to forward petitions denoting their requirements or grievances. It is considered as a vital political right in the modem state. The citizens could be able to find solutions to their immediate or long pending issues by bringing them to the notice of the government through this right. It also helps the public authorities to know the grievances of the people and attend to them properly and promptly.

5) Right to criticism:
This right gives opportunity to the citizens to criticize the various public policies and programmes. It also enables them to highlight the omissions and commissions of the leaders, and administrative personnel at various levels. It also gives scope for the citizens to render positive and constructive criticism about the on goings in the government from time to time. Ultimately it keeps the administrative authorities and policy makers to be vigilant in discharging their obligations.

Question 2.
Identify the safeguards of Rights.
Answer:
Introduction: Rights are the essential conditions for the development of the personality of individuals. They are upheld by the laws of the state. Individuals cannot achieve progress in the absence of the Rights.

Definition:
1) T.H. Green :
“Rights are those powers claimed and recognized as contributory to the common good.”

2) H.J. Laski:
“Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best.”

Safeguards of Rights:
Individuals enjoy their rights only when they were fully protected or safeguarded by the State. In this regard, the following elements act as the safeguards of the rights.

1) Democratic Rule :
Democratic rule safeguards the rights of the people to a great extent. People can enjoy their rights perfectly in democratic states only. This system makes constitutional and legal provisions for safeguarding the right of the people.

2) Written and Rigid Constitution:
A written constitution clearly defines the powers and functions of the government. It also explains about the various limitations of governmental authority. Besides, a rigid constitution will guarantee the rights of the people by making it difficult for the rulers and legislators to make amendments on flimsy grounds.

3) Constitutional Incorporation :
Incorporation of fundamental rights in the constitution will prevent the encroachment of individual rights by the government. Such an arrangement protects the rights of the individuals to a great extent.

4) Separation of Powers:
The powers of the government should be separated among the three organs of the government. Such as measure would act as a check against other organ. Ultimately, it serves as a safeguard of individual liberty.

5) Decentralisation of Powers :
Individuals enjoy their rights, when powers are decentralised among the governmental institutions. This involves allocation of powers at various levels – national, provisional, local either on functional or territorial basis.

6) Rule of Law:
Rule of law implies equality before law. It also denotes equal application of laws to the citizens. It gives no scope for discrimination between citizens on the grounds of region, religion, caste, colour, community etc.

7) Independent and Impartial Judiciary :
Independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of rights. Judges in higher judicial bodies will deliver judgement with impartial and independent outlook. In the process of delivering justice, they issue certain writs for immediate protection of the rights.

8) Indepedent Press:
Independent and honest press is another essential safeguard of rights of individuals. Such agency will be able to disseminate news and views impartially and without fear or favour to anybody. In this regard the state should not try to threaten and silence the press. Then only individuals enjoy their rights to the maximum extent.

9) Social and Economic Equalities:
Social and economic equalities are necessary for enjoying one’s rights. People will be able to utilize their rights properly and positively when there are social and economic equalities in the state. These equalities include absence of casteism, communalism, linguism, wide spread economic inequalities, exploitation etc.

10) Eternal Vigilance:
Eternal vigilance is said to be the most important safeguard of rights of individuals. Individuals must be vigilant and cautious about the policies of the government. They should oppose the despotic tendencies of the government through democratic and constitutional methods. Under no circumstances they should allow the self seeking politicians to acquire power. Besides several other elements like judicial review, recall, strong opposition etc., are considered as the safeguards of rights.

Question 3.
Write an essay on Human Rights.
Answer:
Introduction :
Human rights are the amenities required for the basic existence of human beings. They are available to all persons irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion, region, language etc. The constitutional and ordinary laws in democratic states recognize these rights. The various governments in democratic states will take appropriate steps for providing human rights to their people.

Definitions:

“Human Rights are freedom to all irrespective of place, sex, religion language etc.” – United Nations Organization (U.N.O)
“The Rights which serve as the protective shield to the individuals whenever the state attempts to interfere with the civil liberties of individuals.” – Ronald Darwin
“Human Rights are the new standards of civilization.” – John Dowski

Origin and Growth of Human Rights :

The credit for showing interest on human rights and their application to human goes to Greek rulers. They recognised the need and importance of health and strength in the development of human personality.
Magna Carta sanctioned by King John of England in 1613 gave life to the Freedoms and independence of the people.
The cultural renaissance which shook the various countries in Europe gave strength and succor to the Civil rights movements.
John Locke of England popularised the doctrine of natural rights as a part of his proposal for the spread of human rights.
Rousseu of Switzerland mentioned several times about the importance of human rights in his concept of social contract. He declared that “Man has bom with free but every where he is in chains.”
John Stuart Mill, a prominent British political philosopher, propounded individualism. He stated that every individual is sovereign over himself, his body and mind and all organizations including the state shall not interfere in the affairs of Individuals.
The writings of above philosophers profoundly influenced the people across the globe. Several freedom movements such as bloodless revolution in England (1688), American declaration of Independence (1776), French Revolution (1789), Russian Revolution (1917). The Indian declaration of Independence (1947) etc., led to the creation of favourable atmosphere for the enjoyment of human rights.
After the establishment of United Nations Organization in 1945, the charter of U.N.O assigned priority and significance to the rights of human beings. The universal declaration of human rights came into force on December 10, 1948. Since then, that day is celebrated as the universal human rights day.

As a result, several covenants like international economic, social and cultural rights, International civil and political rights (1966) came into being. The above covenants made obligatory for the international community to provide favourable conditions for enjoying the various human rights by the people of the world. All the member states of the United Nations gave assurance to have full faith in the human rights. They assured their cooperation for observing and promoting human rights.

Violation of Human Rights:
Today in almost all the countries of the World, everywhere the violation of human rights is happening Poverty, Refugees, Separatist movements etc., are the main causes for violation of human rights.

Protection of Human Rights:
Every nation has the responsibility to protect the human rights. Governments as well as voluntary organizations play a key role in protection of human rights. Amnesty International and Asia watch are playing a prominent role in protecting the human rights.

Question 4.
”Rights and Responsibilities are inter related” Analyse.
Answer:
There is a close relationship between rights and responsibilities. The two are considered as the two sides of a same coin. Rights are incomplete in the absence of responsibilities. Rights imply responsibilities are entitled to rights. The two are inseparable. They are compared to the life and breath of living beings.

Essential conditions of social life :
Many political writers described that rights and responsibilities are the two essential conditions of social life. They are like the shield and soul of the people in the state. Every right will have a corresponding responsibility. Similarly, every responsibility has a corresponding right. The two propositions when put together will help to a great extent the individuals to lead a happy, honourable, harmonious and prosperous life in society. For instance, the right to religion allows every individual to embrace a religion of his choice.

It also enables him to preach, profess and propagate his religious beliefs in society. At the same time that person has a corresponding responsibility in religious matters. He has to avail this right to religion in consonance with the religious beliefs of his fellow citizens. He has the responsibility of not interfering in the religious matters of others under any circumstances.

Social Progress :
It is imperative that everyone should enjoy his rights in such a way that his activities contribute to social progress. He should be aware of his rights and perform his responsibilities in a judicious manner. His actions should always be carried on with the Ultimate aim of promoting social progress.

Another postulate regarding the affinity between rights and responsibilities relates to the order in the State. One should utilize his rights in such a way that his actions should in no way disrupt the peaceful atmosphere in the society. Similarly, he should abide by the rules and regulations imposed and implemented by the government authorities from time to time.

He should always carry as his activities in various spheres of life without affecting the rights of others in society. It implies that he must oblige and respect others in the enjoyment of their rights. He should not interfere in other affairs under any circumstances. This reveals the relationship between rights and responsibilities.

Rights and Responsibilities do not have separate or distinct ends. They are always present together like shadow and man.

One’s right automatically becomes other’s responsibility and vice versa. The two rights and responsibilities – together make a person as a good citizen.

Responsibilities lack meaning in the absence of rights. The reason is that there will be no responsibilities without rights. Similarly, there will be no rights without responsibilities. Hence, rights and responsibilities go hand in hand. Together the two concepts enable the peace, progress and harmony in human society.

Question 5.
Write an essay on National Commission on Human Rights.
Answer:
As per the U.N. Declaration of human rights, the government of India too steps for its implementation. In 1993, it appointed National Human Rights Commission and also passed Human Rights Act in 1998.

Composition:
National human rights commission is a multi-member body. It consists of four members, headed by the former chief justice of the supreme court. There will be a supreme court judge (or former Judge). A high court judge (or former high court chief justice) and two other members who actively participated in the human rights activities. The chairman of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, minorities commission, chairperson of national women commission act as the ex-officio members of the commission. There will be a General Secretary having the status of Secretary general in the commission.

Appointment:
The chairman as well as members of the commission are appointed by the President of India.

Tenure :
The Chairman and members shall hold their office for five years or until the super annuation age of 70 years which ever is earlier.

Functions :
The following are some of the important Junctions of national human rights commission.

The national human rights commission makes enquiry into the cases of violation of human rights by the public authorities.
It enquires into the cases of human rights violation as permitted by the judicial organizations.
It reviews the various legislative measures in regard to the implementation of human rights.
It makes suggestions for averting terrorist operations affecting human rights.
It makes research into the matter of human rights.
It takes steps for creating awareness of human rights among the people.
It gives encouragement to voluntary organizations in the matters of preserving human rights.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What are the features of Rights?
Answer:
Rights are the essential conditions for the development of the personality of individuals. They are upheld by the laws of the state. Individuals cannot achieve progress in the absence of rights.

Definition :
“Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best.”

Features of Rights :
Rights comprise the following features.
1) Rights are possible only in society:
Rights originate in society. They denote human social behaviour. They do not exist outside of the society.

2) Rights are social in nature :
Rights are the claims of individuals. These claims can be established only when the society or the state recognises and maintains them. So they are social in nature.

3) Rights are inherent in nature:
Rights are inherent in the social nature of men. The social contractualists stated that rights are inherent in nature. Their views are accepted to some extent in modem times.

4) Rights are enforced and protected by the state:
Rights are enforced and protected by the state. The various judicial organisations act as the custodians of the rights of individuals. In other words, rights are protected by the courts of law. Individuals enjoy several rights fully only in a democratic state.

5) Rights are not absolute :
Rights are not absolute. Society and state impose some restrictions on the enjoyment of rights by the individuals. These restrictions are meant for maintaining peace and other in the society. Further, rights are meant for contributing social welfare and security.

6) Every right has a corresponding responsibility :
Rights and responsibilities are interdependent. Every right has a corresponding responsibility. It is the responsibility of every individual to see that his neighbours also enjoy the same rights. Rights without responsibilities or responsibilities without rights cannot exist. Both are essential for leading a peaceful social life.

7) Rights are universal :
Rights are universal in nature. They are applicable to all. They are given to all without any discrimination.

8) Rights vary :
Rights vary from time to time according to the needs of the people. They also grow with the changes in time and conditions. Some rights which were not found in the past may exist now. The socio economic, political and cultural conditions will have an influence over the rights.

9) Rights precede the state :
Rights are the products of history. Rights originated in course of time. They were prevalent even before the origin of the state. However, they were guaranteed only after the origin of the state.

10) Rights are meant for common good :
Rights always exist and flourish as long as they are meant for common good. Only those rights which promote common good of the people are recognised by the society and the state. They are essential for leading a prosperous life by the individuals.

Question 2.
Explain Political Rights.
Answer:
Political rights are those rights which enable the individuals to participate in the political affairs of the state.

Question 3.
What are the features of Human Rights?
Answer:
Human rights are the amenities required for the basic existence of human beings. They are available to all persons irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion, region, language etc. The constitutional and ordinary laws in democratic states recognize these rights. The various governments in democratic states will take appropriate steps for providing human rights to their people.

Definition :
“Human rights are freedom to all irrespective of place, sex, religion, language etc.” – U.N.O.

Features of human rights :
There are some common features of human rights. They may be mentioned as follows :

Human rights are enjoyed by all the people without discrimination.
These rights are universal.
They treat all people alike.
They regard individuals basically as human beings.
They encompass some fundamental principles of humanity.
They have no geographical limitations.

Almost all members of the united nations organisation have affirmed to follow the human tights in theory.

Question 4.
Write the objectives and classification of Human Rights.
Answer:
Definition of human rights:
“Human Rights are Freedom to all irrespective of place, sex, religion, language etc. – U.N.O.

Objectives of human rights:
The following are the various objectives of human rights.

Provision of independence to the people against discrimination.
Freedom from poverty.
Freedom for availing the latent abilities of individuals.
Freedom from fear.
Freedom of protection.
Freedom from injustice.
Freedom of speech and expression.
Freedom of protection.
Freedom of association.
Freedom for carrying one’s activities on dignified lines.
Freedom against exploitation.

The united nations general assembly declared 1995 – 2005 as the International decade of human rights. The ultimate objective of human rights relates to the provision of human rights to all people of the world.

Classification of human rights:
Human rights are broadly classified into two categories (i) Civil and Political Rights (ii) Economic, social and cultural rights. In the first category, civil rights occupy a prominent position. Civil rights include several rights like right to life, liberty and security of individuals, freedom from slavery and torture, equality before law, protection against arbitrary custody etc.

They also assure the individual for a right to fair trial, right to own property, right to marriage etc. Besides they comprise several freedoms like freedom of speech, expression, association, assembly, movement, residence etc. Political rights include right to vote, right to contest as candidates in elections to various offices, right to assume power, right to criticise, right to petition etc.

The second category of human rights include several economic, social and cultural rights. Economic rights include right to work, right to equal payment of salaries to equal work, right to form and join in trade unions, right to adequate standard of living etc. Social rights include right to education, right to health, right to entertainment etc. Respecting the civilization, arts, culture etc., are included in the category of cultural rights.

Question 5.
Discuss the various types of Responsibilities.
Answr:
Responsibility is an obligation of an individual towards other individuals residing in the society. It is regarded as an obligation or duty towards others. The term ’Responsibility’ denotes what one is bound to do. Every individual must abide by certain rules of behaviour in society for his own good and for the good of others. These include some do’s and don’ts. Responsibilities are both positive and negative in nature.

Everyone in society must perform these responsibilities in the larger interests of society and state. Everyone must behave in such a way that promotes common good and social welfare. Responsibilities in turn contribute to the public good. They establish peace and order in society. Responsibilities always preceed rights.

Types of Responsibilities:
Responsibilities are broadly of two types: Moral and Legal.

i) Moral Responsibilities:
Moral responsibilities are those which bound the individuals together on moral grounds. They may not be upheld and supported by the laws of the state. They are based on the moral beliefs of the people. They are sanctioned by the community basing on some customs, traditions and usages. Any violation of moral responsibilities does not lead to punishment. Helping the needy and the sick is regarded as an example of moral responsibilities.

ii) Legal Responsibilities:
Legal Responsibilities are implemented through the courts and with the support of the statutory laws. They carry statutory significance. They are very clear and precise. They are compulsory and coercive in nature. So those who violate these responsibilities will be punished. Obeying the laws of the state, paying taxes, assisting the administrators in the maintenance of law and order etc., are some of the important legal responsibilities of a citizen.

Legal Responsibilities are further classified into positive and negative.

1) Positive Responsibilities:
When a citizen exercises his responsibilities to strengthen the social progress and welfare, they are known as positive responsibilities. Obedience to the laws of the state, defending the country, paying taxes etc., are some of the examples for positive aspects of legal responsibilities. These responsibilities aim at extending co-operation to the government in realizing the objectives of the state.

2) Negative Responsibilities :
When a citizen abstains from doing an activity as prohibited by the laws, it is said to be an example of negative responsibility. Negative respon-sibilities keep the people from not doing certain activities. The government, on behalf of the state, makes several regulations in this regard.

Question 6.
What are the features of Fundamental Rights?
Answer:
Fundamental rights are very essential for the development of the personality of the individuals. They are by and large incorporated in the constitution. Several factors like (i) democracy (ii) individual freedoms (iii) minority interests (iv) greater emphasis on human life, liberty and properties etc., are responsible for the incorporation of fundamental rights in the constitution.

Characteristics of Fundamental Rights :
Fundamental rights have the following characteristics.

Fundamental Rights are definite, clear and specific.
They are constitutional and legal in nature.
They are coercive in nature.
They are given to the citizens only.
They vary from state to state.
They are not absolute.
They can be amended under certain conditions.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Rights.
Answer:

“Rights are those powers claimed and recognized as contributory to the common good.” – T.H. Green
“Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek in general to be himself at his best.” – H.J. Laski

Question 2.
Classify Rights. [A.P. 19, 15; T.S. Mar, 15]
Answer:
Rights are broadly classified into three categories namely, (i) Natural rights (ii) Moral rights and (iii) Legal rights.
Legal Rights intum classified into (i) Civil rights (ii) Political rights and (iii) Economic rights.

Question 3.
What are Civil Rights?
Answer:
Civil rights aim at providing basic conditions for individuals to lead a happy and dignified social life. These rights are considered vital for a civilized society. Social life becomes impossible in their absence. Right to life, Right to liberty, Right to equality etc., are some of the examples of civil rights.

Question 4.
Natural Rights.
Answer:
Natural rights are those rights which are enjoyed by men by birth. Men enjoyed these rights even before the origin of civilised society. The society and the state recognized and respected these rights. John Locke, who propounded the theory of natural rights, claimed that rights are pre-social and pre-political in nature. He cited the right to life, right to liberty and right to property as the basic natural rights. The state cannot deprive men of these rights.

Question 5.
Moral Rights. [A.P. 2018]
Answer:
Moral rights denote claims based on the ‘moral’ code of the community. These rights are morally prescribed to men in the society. The ethical or moral principles in the society act as the basis of the moral rights. Customs, traditions and usages are regarded as the basic source of these rights. Men enjoy these rights in a civil society. These rights are based on the moral conscience of the people. They don’t have legal support. However, they are backed by the society. So violation of these rights is not considered as a crime. Individuals could be punished for their violation. Moral rights are indefinite and vague. But they are popular in nature. The State cannot ignore these rights for a long time.

Question 6.
What are Political Rights?
Answer:
Political rights are those rights which enable the individuals to participate in the political affairs of the state. They help the citizens to manage the political affairs including the organization of the government. They empower the citizens in the political affairs of the state. Citizens can freely participate in the administration of the country. A unique feature of these rights is that they are enjoyed by the citizens only. Aliens do not possess these rights.

Right to vote, right to contest as candidates in elections, right to hold public offices, right to petition, right to criticize the government etc., are some examples of the political rights.

Question 7.
What are the objectives of Human Rights?
Answer:
The following are the various objectives of human rights.

Provision of independence to the people against discrimination.
Freedom from poverty.
Freedom for availing the latent abilities of individuals.
Freedom from fear.
Freedom of protection.
Freedom from injustice.
Freedom of speech and expression.
Freedom of protection.
Freedom of association.
Freedom for carrying one’s activities on dignified lines.
Freedom against exploitation.

Question 8.
How many types of Human Rights are there? Name them.
Answer:
Human rights are broadly classified into two categories :
(i) Civil and political rights (ii) Economic, social and cultural rights.

Question 9.
Significance of Human Rights.
Answer:
The United Nations reaffirmed that the people and governments of every state must strive for respecting individual freedoms and human rights. The concerned authorities and agencies of the United Nations held several international conferences and invited internationally acclaimed intellectuals, jurists and heads of states for eliciting their valuable opinions on extending human rights to every section of human communities throughout the world.

Question 10.
Classification of Responsibilities.
Answer:
Responsibilities are broadly classified into (i) Moral responsibilities (ii) Legal responsibilities. Legal responsibilities are further classified into (i) Positive responsibilities (ii) Negative responsibilities.

Question 11.
Moral Responsibilities.
Answer:
Moral Responsibilities :
Moral responsibilities are those which bound the individuals together on moral grounds. They may not be upheld and supported by the laws of the state. They are based on the moral beliefs of the people. They are sanctioned by the community basing on some customs, traditions and usages. Any violation of moral responsibilities does not lead to punishment. Helping the needy and the sick is regarded as an example of moral responsibilities.

Question 12.
Give some examples of Responsibilities.
Answer:
The following are some examples of Responsibilities :

Payment of Taxes
Cooperation in law and order matters
Honest exercise of Franchise etc.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 5 Liberty and Equality

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 5th Lesson Liberty and Equality Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 5th Lesson Liberty and Equality

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Liberty and describe various types of Liberty.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of people living all over the world.

Meaning:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definitions :
Liberty is defined in many ways by different political thinkers. Some of them are cited below :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedom of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – TH. Green
“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves”. – H.J. Laski

Types of Liberty: Liberty is of different types. Some of them may be described in the following :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty
National liberty.

1. Natural liberty:
Natural liberty is understood as uncontrolled freedom or absolute freedom. It is believed that natural liberty existed in the pre-social and pre-state human life. According to this concept there were no rules and regulations except the Liberty and Equalitys of nature in the past. All persons were free to do anything according to their will and capacity. But this type of liberty is not possible in civilised society, since liberty is a social condition. True liberty does not inconvenience others. Liberty is not a licence. Natural liberty is equal to anarchy. The weak cannot enjoy liberty without Liberty and Equality. Some writers imagined that this kind of liberty existed before the origin of state.

2. Civil liberty :
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It relates to the individual’s freedom in his life as a member of the social organisation. It is enjoyed by the individuals in the society. Civil liberty is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and survival of human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the state. So it is a must to every one. The state recognises the various freedoms of individuals. In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”. The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work Q Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

3. Economic liberty :
Economic liberty means the right of everyone to earn his livelihood. Laski described economic liberty as the security and opportunity to find reasonable significance in earning one’s daily bread. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and feari hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. Economic liberty denotes freedom from want or insecurity of economic nature. Without economic liberty democracy is meaningless. It will also be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

4. Political liberty:
Political liberty facilitates the citizens to take part in the political affairs of the state. Laski regarded political liberty as the power to be active in the affairs of the state. Gilchrist considered that political liberty is synonymous with democracy. Leacock described political liberty as constitutional liberty or liberty to choose one’s own government. Political liberty is confined to the citizens alone.

It is positive in nature. Political liberty provides several rights in political matters. These include (i) right to vote, (ii) right to contest as candidates in elections, (iii) right to hold public office, (iv) right to criticism etc. Laski emphasised that political liberty becomes real when there prevails (i) education (ii) honest and impartial press etc. Political liberty will be realized only in a democratic system.

5. National liberty :
National liberty implies the freedom and independence of the state. It also denotes the sovereignty of the state. Every state enjoys this liberty and remains free from the political domination of other states. This liberty is essential for the progress of nation in all spheres. It was manifested in several countries since ancient period; Many countries made efforts for securing this type of liberty.

The Greeks fought a war of independence against the Turks. Similarly the Indian masses under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi waged a non-violent struggle to secure national freedom from the British rule. National liberty is veiy valuable. Great leaders like Thomas Jefferson emphasised the significance of national liberty.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Liberty? What are the safeguards of Liberty?
Answer:
Introduction:
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word” LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definition:

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – T.H. Green

Safeguards of liberty:
Liberty is the most cherished ideal of human beings. Hence, it must be safeguarded in the larger interest of the society and state. In this context, the following safeguards of liberty are worth mentioning.

1. Democratic rule :
Democratic rule is considered as a heaven to liberty. Liberty flourishes only in a democratic state. The reason is that democratic state extends protection to individual’s liberties through various Liberty and Equalitys. It creates a conducive atmosphere for the individuals to enjoy their liberties freely and impartially. It makes the people to participate in the government process directly or indirectly.

It makes the people to participate in the governmental process directly or indirectly. It makes the government answerable to the people. It allows the people the right to change the government through public opinion or ballot when the government acts improperly.

It mentions about the various measures to be taken in case of people’s freedoms are infringed or confiscated by others including governmental authorities. It also imposes restraints on the political parties by not allowing them to amend the constitutional provisions for furthering their partisan interests.

3. Independent judiciary :
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Prof. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

4. Rule of Liberty and Equality :
Rule of Liberty and Equality is another safeguard of liberty. It is prevalent in many states like Britan, India, United States etc. Rule of Liberty and Equality safeguards individual liberties in three ways. Firstly, it treats all individuals as equal. Secondly, it makes arrangement for the application and enforcement of uniform Liberty and Equalitys throughout the state. Thirdly, it exercises restraints on the executive against the use of arbitrary powers.

5. Fundamental rights :
Provision of fundamental rights will safeguard rights to a great extent. Citizens enjoy their liberties without restraints when these rights are enshrined in the constitution. Fundamental rights enable the citizens to develop their talents and realise their personality in various walks of life.

6. Economic equality:
Economic equality too acts as an important safeguard of individual liberties. It implies provision of adequate conditions for the people to come out of the evil j effects of hunger, poverty, and unemployment etc. Liberty becomes real when there exists economic equality. Economic equality presupposes economic justice. It is guaranteed by the state. Absence of glaring inequalities is a pre-condition of safeguarding liberty.

7. Decentralization of powers:
Liberty will be better safeguard through decentralisation of powers. Individuals could enjoy their liberties when the country is free from the centralization of governmental powers and authority. When the powers of the government are allocated among the union, state, and local governments, there arises no scope for despotism and infringement of individual liberties.

8. Freedom of press :
Some regarded freedom of press as a safeguard of individual liberty. Individuals could enjoy their liberties when the various agencies of press and other media have autonomy in their functioning. The press will be able to serve as an important agent for creating, consolidating and expressing public opinion. It, through its impartial editorials and honest presentation of news and views, will be able to safeguard individual liberties.

9. Strong opposition :
A strong opposition is a necessary condition for promoting individual liberty. The opposition will act as a watchdog of individual liberty. Whenever the party in power or persons at higher levels of government try to subvert or circumscribe the freedoms of individuals by their oppressive and despotic acts and activities through legislation and execution, the opposition will strongly resist such attempts. Itr by moving a no-confidence motion in the last resort, will uphold the liberties of the individuals.

10. Eternal vigilance :
The best safeguard to liberty is the spirit of the people. It is rightly said, “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty”. People must be ready to fight for their liberty. They should have the courage even to rebel against the government whenever their liberty is curbed by it. In the words of Laski, “It is the proud spirit of the citizens, that is their most real safeguard”.

Question 3.
What do you mean by Equality ? What are its types?
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality: The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term Equality’ became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

In Political science, the term ‘Equality’ refers to a state which grants its citizens equality before the Liberty and Equality and equal opportunities to develop their personality. But it may be noted that individuals are not equal in many respects. While some of them are strong, some others may be weak. Similarly some are more intelligent than others. In this way, men differ in many respects. Hence, equality of treatment is not possible. In other words, it implies that State should grant to its citizens equality before Liberty and Equality and equal protection by Liberty and Equality.

Definitions :

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of Equality :
There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following.

1. Natural equality:
This kind of equality existed in the “State of Nature”. It is based on the principle that nature has created everyone as equal. But natural equality exists no where in the world. Nature has not created all people with the same qualities. So by natural equality we generally mean the provision of equal opportunities to all. It implies the abolition of man-made and artificial inequalities.

2. Social equality :
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not reconize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through Liberty and Equalitys. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining social equality.

Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations with their fellow citizens.
People should not use their name of the caste, sect or religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

3. Economic equality :
This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social, and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination of inequalities in wealth, income and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barker’s view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

4. Political equality:
Political equality is an important kind of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness.

Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Political equality prevails and flourishes when all citizens were provided with political rights like Right to vote, Right to contest elections, Right to make petitions and Right to criticism. That means political equality flourishes only in democratic countries.

5. International equality:
International equality means that all the states are treated equally irrespective of their geographical, economic or military composition. According to this element all nations of the world are equal whether they are large or small. For instance, the United Nations have extended equal dignity and status to all the nations in its Charter. International Equality reflects the traits of humanism. It emphasizes the peaceful settlement of disputes between the nations. Some cautioned about the occurrence of Third World War in the absence of respect to international Liberty and Equality. They expressed apprehensions thinking that human beings will go back to the stone ages.

Question 4.
Explain the relationship between Liberty and Equality.
Answer:
Liberty and Equality are important concepts in political science. They are closely related to each other. Both of them inspired the people of several countries during their struggle of independence against Foreign Rule.

Political philosophers have expressed two different opinions in regard to the relationship between Liberty and Equality. They agreed that both Liberty and Equality are important concepts in Political Science. However, some advanced the notion of affinity between the two. Others considered that the two are incompatible to each other.

The first school of thought includes political philosophers like Rousseau, Tawney, Laski and G.D.H. Cole. The second school of thought includes Lord Mathew Arnold, Lord Acton, De Toe quavilla and others. Let us analyse the argument of the two in the following paras.

Liberty and Equality are opposite :
The propounders of this school have expressed the view that liberty and equality are opposite in nature. Lord Acton said that the desire to have equality destroyed the possibility of full liberty. Whenever the government passes a Liberty and Equality to bring equality, Liberties of some people are restricted. Similarly, when all individuals are allowed freedom to acquire wealth, only a few talented persons will be able to receive the advantages. This leads to inequalities of wealth. When equality is maintained, liberties of some efficient persons will be curtailed.

Industrial revolution (1760-1840) symbolized this type of exploitation in society. It led to capitalism which is characterized by free and cutthroat competition. On the other hand, Socialist countries forced the people to practice the principles of duty, discipline and devotion towards the State. Such a policy will kill the initiative and incentive of the people. The supporters of this view argued that both the concepts will not go together. Unrestrained liberty will destroy equality. Nations can achieve the goal of either liberty or equality at a time. Both cannot be realized simultaneously. For instance, in communist states people enjoy equality but they were deprived of liberty.

Liberty and Equality are complementary :
It is said that liberty and equality are complementary to each other. The proponents of this school argued that liberty can be enjoyed by the people only with some degree of equality. A large measure of equality is essential for the enjoyment of liberty. Tawney, a support of this school of thought, pointed out that a large measure of equality is essential for the enjoyment of equality.

Polard, another supporter, hinted out that there is only one solution to the issue of liberty; it lies in equality. Indeed both the concepts have a common end, namely, the promotion of human personality and the spontaneous development of one’s capacities to the greatest heights.

It may be noted that the above two arguments are not completely real. The fact lies in between the two. Liberty and Equality are neither completely complementary not antithetical in nature. In this context, the real relationship between the two concepts may be explained as below.

Liberty is essential for equality:
a) Liberty does not mean absolute freedom. It has some limitations. It is available to all for achieving social welfare under certain conditions.

b) Liberty cannot be treated as the monopoly of a person or a group of persons.

c) Enjoyment of liberty by a person does not affect the same of others. If one recognizes this principle, he has to respect the principle of equality. It means that the fruits of liberty are found in the branches of the tree of equality. So, liberty and equality are complementary to each other. When liberty is extended to all the people on the principles of equality, the goal of liberty could be fulfilled in the true sense.

Equality is essential for Liberty: Equality does not mean identical treatment which is impossible in a civil society. It means equality under similar conditions. In a civil society, some persons may not have equal status with others. But it is necessary to provide some conditions and opportunities for the people to develop their status and personality. It may be said that when all people are equal, the fruits of liberty is available to all.

In this way liberty and equality are complementary to each other. These two concepts are so inter related that they have common objective. If liberty disregards equality, it would lead to anarchy and dictatorship. In the same way, if equality keeps itself away from liberty, it would lead to slavery. Both the ideals are essential for the betterment of the individual and the society.

Question 5.
Define the term Equality. Write about Social and Economic Equalities.
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality:
The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality’ became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.
In Political science, the term ‘Equality’ refers to a state which grants its citizens equality before the Liberty and Equality and equal opportunities to develop the ir personality. But it may be noted that individuals are not equal in many respects. While some of them are strong, some others may be weak. Similarly some are more intelligent than others. In this way, men differ in many respects. Hence, equality of treatment is not possible. In other words, it implies that State should grant to its citizens equality before Liberty and Equality and equal protection by Liberty and Equality.

Definitions:

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of Equality :
There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following.

1. Social Equality:
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discrimination. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. For instance, the constitution of India does not reconize caste or class distinctions. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability. When all citizens enjoy social equality, there will be no discrimination against anyone on the grounds of caste, class, colour, creed, race and place of birth and legal rights. Social equality cannot be achieved only through Liberty and Equalitys. There must prevail a sentiment of equality among individuals. The following elements help in achieving and maintaining social equality.

Special privileges should not be allowed by the state to any citizen.
The government shall adopt and implement a uniform policy in the fields of education, employment, administration and legislation.
People must have a broad outlook with the qualities of tolerance, sacrifice, honesty etc., in social and religious affairs.
Citizens of a state should maintain harmonious relations with their fellow citizens.
People should not use their name of the caste, sect or religion at the time of forwarding petitions.
Inter caste marriages should be encouraged.

2. Economic equality :
This kind of equality is a precondition for the enjoyment of social and political equalities. Its absence leads to several social and political problems. Economic equality does not mean equal distribution of social wealth among all the people. It only means the elimination of inequalities in wealth, income, and property. The basic needs like food, shelter and clothing must be available to all. In the opinion of Laski, “Economic equality means the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. In Barker’s view, “Economic equality is partly a matter of status and partly a matter of property and income”.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Liberty and describe any three types of Liberty. [A.P. Mar, 18]
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definitions :
Liberty is defined in many ways by different political thinkers. Some of them are cited below :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedom of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying”. – TH. Green
“Liberty is the eager maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the opportunity to be at their best selves”. – H.J. Laski

Types of Liberty:
Liberty is of different types. Some of them may be described in the following :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty
National liberty.

3. Economic liberty :
Economic liberty means the right of every one to earn his livelihood. Laski described economic liberty as the security and opportunity to find reasonable significance in earning one’s daily bread. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and fear, hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. Economic liberty denotes freedom from want or insecurity of economic nature. Without economic liberty democracy is meaningless. It will also be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

Question 2.
Explain about any three safeguards of Liberty. [T.S. 2017]
Answer:
Introduction :
The concept of Liberty is of great significance in the study of political science. Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. It became a source of inspiration to the millions of the people living all over the world.

Meaning:
The term liberty is derived from the Latin word” LIBER” which means free from restrictions.

Definition :

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seely
“Liberty means the positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing or enjoying” – T.H. Green

1. Democratic rule :
Democratic rule is considered as a heaven to liberty. Liberty flourishes only in a democratic State. The reason is that democratic state extends protection to individual’s liberties through various Liberty and Equalitys. It creates a conducive atmosphere for the individuals to enjoy their liberties freely and impartially. It makes the people to participate in the government process directly or indirectly. It makes the people to participate in the governmental process directly or indirectly. It makes the government answerable to the people. It allows the people the right to change the government through public opinion or ballot when the government acts improperly.

2. Written and rigid constitution :
A written and rigid constitution is considered the most important safeguard of individual liberty. Such a constitution incorporates the various freedoms of individuals in several provisions. It acts as a custodian of people’s rights and liberties. It demarcates the spheres of governmental activity. It mentions about the various measures to be taken in case of people’s freedoms are infringed or confiscated by others including governmental authorities. It also imposes restraints on the political parties by not allowing them to amend the constitutional provisions for furthering their partisan interests.

3. Independent judiciary :
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Pro. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

Question 3.
What are the characteristics of Liberty?
Answer:
Meaning:
The term Liberty is derived from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restraints.

Definition :
“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seely

Characteristics of Liberty:
The following are the important characteristics of Liberty.

Liberty is a dynamic concept. Its interpretation varies according to time, place and wishes of the people.
Liberty always opposes political subjugation, imprisonment and slavery.
It always aims at realizing the aspirations of the individuals.
Liberty always means absence of irrational restraints and presence of favourable conditions.
It is the product of rights.
It is essential for the realization of human personalities.
It is found only in democratic states.
It is manifest in the form of rights.
It does not mean license to do whatever a person wants. It is always subject to limitations.

Question 4.
Describe the different aspects of Liberty.
Answer:
Meaning:
The term Liberty is derived’from the Latin word “LIBER” which means free from restraints.

Definition :
“Liberty means the absence of restraints”.

Aspects of Liberty :
Liberty has two aspects – Negative and Positive.

1. Negative aspect:
Liberty, in its negative aspect, implies absence of restrictions. Individuals enjoy freedom only when there are no restraints on their freedoms. However, some considered this aspect as not realistic. They asserted that unrestrained liberty was possible in a pre-social state. It is neither feasible nor practicable for enjoying freedoms by the individuals in modem times.

2. Positive aspect:
Liberty in its positive aspects denotes a situation in which individual is free to do according to his wishes and allowing others the same in his case. To say in other words liberty is the power which should not cause harm to others. T.H. Green, an idealist philosopher, propounded this aspect of liberty. He stated thus “Liberty is the power of doing or enjoying something that is worth doing or worth enjoying in common with others”.

Question 5.
What do you mean by Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It relates to the individual’s freedom in his life as a member of the social organisation. It is enjoyed by the individuals in the society. Civil liberty is the essential pre-requisite to the existence and survival of human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the state. So it is a must to every one. The state recognises the various freedoms of individuals. In this regard Gettle said thus “Civil liberty is the group of rights recognised and implemented by the state”. The constitution of the America and the India have in corporated civil liberty in the form of fundamental rights. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights. These include A) Right to Life B) Right to Work Q Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

Question 6.
Point out two elements that threaten individual’s Liberties.
Answer:
Liberty is an essential condition without which man cannot develop his personality. Even though the liberty is safeguarded by several ways, there prevails some elements which threatens the Liberty of individuals in modem times. They are as follows :

1. Enhancement of state authority:
The modem democratic state, in the pretext of welfarism has assumed undefinable powers. As a result, it has been intruding into every activity of the people. Even its interference in family matters in the name of population correctives became common. So is the case in the sphere of economy, culture, arts, science etc. All this will lead to the encroachment of state into the public domain. This negated individual liberty to a great extent.

2. Too many Liberty and Equalitys :
In modem times people felt the government should come to their rescue for providing various amenities. This prompted the government to encroach into the sphere of individuals. In the process, too many Liberty and Equalitys have become the order of the day. Extension of Liberty and Equalitys gradually led to the curtailment of individual liberties.

3. Negative attitude :
In democracy, the government informs the people about its policies and responds to the public opinion. In the process there is eveiy possibility of distorting public opinion by the concerned persons on the government. We could notice this tendency in several states of the worlds including India.

4. Tyranny of majority :
Individual liberty is ressed by the tyranny of majority. The party in power, through its majority members support in the legislature, makes Liberty and Equalitys without considering the wishes and aspirations of the people. Such a situation will be dangerous to individual liberties. Citizens must not vote to such a party in power or the opposition as in Indian government in the coming elections.

Question 7.
What is meant by Equality?
Answer:
The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality’ became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment. In political science the term Equality refers to a state which grants its citizens equality before the Liberty and Equality and equal opportunities to develop their personality.

Definitions:

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Question 8.
Describe any three aspects of Equality.
Answer:
The concept of equality has mainly two aspects-Positive and Negative. Equality, in its positive aspect, means the provision of adequate opportunities for all. However, it does not mean simply identical treatment for all. Since individuals differ in their needs and capacities, they require different opportunities for their personal development. Individuals should be given such opportunities which will develop their overall personality. If the state provides adequate opportunities to all for developing the capacities, the concept of equality could be realised in practice.

Equality in its negative sense, means no discrimination on some artificial grounds based on caste, colour, creed, descent, domicile, religion, etc. Everyone should get his due share. He should be in a position to realize his best self. Laski says that “Whatever rights herein in another by virtue of his being a citizen must be herein, and to the same extent in me also”. Everyone should have an equal access to the avenues of their Liberties.

Question 9.
What is Equality? Explain any three types of equality. [A.P. 19, 15]
Answer:
Meaning and explanation of Equality:
The concept of Equality is of great significance in the study of political science. The term ‘Equality’ became an important slogan and inspired the people of France, America, Russia and India during their struggle for freedom and independence.

The term “Equality” implies absolute equality of treatment.

Definitions:

“Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”. – H.J. Laski
“Equality implies equal rights for all the people and abolition of special rights and privileges”. – Barker

Types of equality :
There are many types of equality. They may be analysed in the following.

2. Political equality:
Political equality is an important kind of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Then only political equality brings the required fruits. Political equality prevails and flourishes when all citizens were provided with political rights like Right to vote, Right to contest elections, Right to make petitions and Right to criticism. That means political equality flourishes only in democratic countries.

3. International equality:
International equality means that all the states are treated equally irrespective of their geographical, economic or military composition. According to this element all nations of the world are equal whether they are large or small. For instance, the United Nations have extended equal dignity and status to all the nations in its Charter. International Equality reflects the traits of humanism. It emphasizes the peaceful settlement of disputes between the nations. Some cautioned about the occurrence of Third World War in the absence of respect to international Liberty and Equality. They expressed apprehensions thinking that human beings will go back to the stone ages.

Question 10.
Write about Political Equality.
Answer:
Political equality is an important kind of equality. It means that all citizens will have equal access to the avenues of authority. All of them possess the same political rights, an equal voice in government and equal right to hold public offices. It may be noted that political equality is enjoyed by the citizens only. It is not given to aliens and foreign nationals living in a state. Citizens have to utilise the opportunities given by political equality with great case, farsighted outlook and broad-mindedness.

Question 11.
Discuss the importance of Economic Equality.
Answer:
Economic equality is considered as the basis of social and political equalities. It serves as the main driving force behind all activities in the modern state. Economic equality means the elimination of vast inequalities in income, property and wealth. Earnest Barker viewed thus “Economic equality is purely a matter of status and partially a matter of property and income”. Lord Bryce viewed “Economic Equality” as The attempt to expunge all differences in wealth, allotting every man and women an equal share in the worldly goods”.

Prof. Laski held thus “Economic Equality implies the abolition of unfettered and irresponsible will in the industrial world”. At the same time, economic equality does not mean equal treatment and reward. It stands for opportunity to work and earn their livelihood to improve their economic status. This can be achieved only through individuals and government. Many socialist states have tried and partially succeeded in achieving economic equality.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Give any two definitions of Liberty.
Answer:

“Liberty means the absence of restraints”. – J.R. Seeley
“Liberty is the freedom of an individual to express without any external hindrance to his personality”. – G.D.H. Cole

Question 2.
What do you know about positive aspect of Liberty?
Answer:
Positive aspect:
Liberty in its positive aspects denotes a situation in which individual is free to do according to his wishes and allowing others the same in his case. To say in other words liberty is the power which should not cause harm to others. T.H. Green, an idealist philosopher, propounded this aspect of liberty. He stated thus “Liberty is the power of doing or enjoying something that is worth doing or worth enjoying in common with others.

Question 3.
List out any four characteristics of Liberty.
Answer:
Characteristics of Liberty: The following are the important characteristics of Liberty.

Liberty is a dynamic concept. Its interpretation varies according to time, place and wishes of the people.
Liberty always opposes political subjugation, imprisonment and slavery.
It always aims at realizing the aspirations of the individuals.
Liberty always means absence of irrational restraints and presence of favourable conditions.
It is the product of rights.

Question 4.
Mention the names of four types of liberty.
Answer:
Liberty is of in the following types namely :

Natural liberty
Civil liberty
Economic liberty
Political liberty and
National liberty.

Question 5.
What is Civil Liberty?
Answer:
Civil liberty is also known as personal liberty. It is the essential pre requisite to the existence and survival of human beings. It enables them to lead happy, honourable and civilised life in the state. Civil liberty is manifested in several rights like A) Right to Life B) Right to Work C) Right to Property D) Right to Religion E) Right to Speech, Expression, Assembly, Movement and Residence etc.

Question 6.
Write about Political Liberty.
Answer:
Political liberty facilitates the citizens to take part in the political affairs of the state. Political liberty is confined to the citizens alone. Political liberty provides several rights like i) Right to vote ii) Right to contest as candidates in elections iii) Right to hold public offices iv) Right to criticism etc.

Question 7.
Is it possible to achieve complete Economic Liberty?
Answer:
It is possible to achieve complete economic liberty if the following measures are taken.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Giving representation to the workers in the management of the industries.

Question 8.
What is Economic Liberty? [A.P. & T.S. Mar, 15]
Answer:
Economic liberty means the right of every one to earn his livelihood. Economic liberty ensures everyone freedom from want and fear, hunger and starvation, unemployment and insufficiency. It will be secured by adopting the following measures.

Provision of minimum wages.
Guarantee of the right to work.
Protecting the workers from unemployment, sickness and other types of insecurity.
Providing adequate leisure etc.

Question 9.
What do you know about National Liberty?
Answer:
National Liberty implies the Freedom and Independence of the state. It also denotes the sovereignty of the state. Every state enjoys this liberty and remains free from the political domination of other states. Ex: The Indian masses under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi waged a non-violent struggle to secure National Freedom from the British Rule.

Question 10.
Mention any four safeguards of Liberty.
Answer:

Democratic rule
Written and rigid constitution
Independent judiciary
Rule of Liberty and Equality
Fundamental rights

Question 11.
Write about Independent-Judiciary as a safeguard of Liberty.
Answer:
Independent judiciary:
An independent and impartial judiciary is another safeguard of individual liberty. The judiciary will uphold the constitution and keeps the government accountable to the people. It prescribes various safeguards for protecting the fundamental rights of citizens. The judges in higher courts will deliver justice to the people on fair, free and impartial manner. Prof. Laski, while recognizing this safeguard, stated that good governance depends upon the effective functioning of judiciary.

Question 12.
What is Equality?
Answer:
According to H.J. Laski “Equality means first of all the absence of special privilege. In the second place “It means that adequate opportunities are laid open to all”.

Question 13.
Mention the different implications of Equality.
Answer:
The following are the major implications of equality. They are :
a) There should not be any special privileges to any individual or a group of individuals.

b) People must be provided with adequate opportunities to develop their personalities.

c) There should not be any discrimination among the people on the grounds of religion, caste, creed, colour, place of birth etc. However, some discrimination may be made on the basis of reasonable grounds i.e., protective discrimination.

Question 14.
What are the aspects of Equality?
Answer:
The concept of equality has mainly two aspects – Positive ad Negative. Equality in its positive aspect, means the provision of adequate opportunities for all. Equality in its negative sense, means no discrimination on some artificial grounds based on caste, colour, creed, descent, domicile, religion etc.

Question 15.
Write about any two features of Equality.
Answer:
The following are the essential features of equality.
1. Equality not given by nature :
Equality is not given by nature. Absolute equality is now here to be found. All individuals are bom in the same circumstances. Human beings are not like standard commodities which are coming out of a factory. Every individual has his own point of strength and weakness peculiar to his personality. No two individuals remain exactly like each other. Practically, individuals are not equal.

2. Equality not absolute:
Equality is not absolute. Absolute equality is neither possible nor desirable. In no movement in the history of the world did individuals claim to have absolute equality. So, equality does not mean uniformity and differences does not mean inequality.

Question 16.
Mention the different forms of Equality.
Answer:
Equality is of the different forms like

Natural equality
Social equality
Economic equality
Political equality and
International equality.

Question 17.
Explain Natural Equality.
Answer:
Natural equality:
This kind of equality existed in the “State of Nature”. It is based on the principle that nature has created everyone as equal. But natural equality exists no where in the world. Nature has not created all people with the same qualities. So by natural equality we generally mean the provision of equal opportunities to all. It implies the abolition of man-made and artificial inequalities.

Question 18.
What do you mean by Social Equality?
Answer:
Social equality stands for equality of status and absence of class distinctions and discriminations. It exists when no individual is made to suffer on account of his caste, class, colour, creed, race etc. In fact it has opposed the practice of untouchability.

Question 19.
What is meant by Political Equality?
Answer:
Political equality implies the provision of adequate conditions for the people in the political affairs of the state. It is enjoyed by the citizens only. It could be achieved by granting various political rights such as

Right to vote
Right to contest in elections
Right to hold public offices
Right to criticise the government etc.

Question 20.
Mention the measures adopted for achieving Economic Equality.
Answer:
The following measures are adopted for achieving Economic Equality.

Provision of adequate means of employment
Implementation of land reforms
Providing housing facilities to the poor
Provision of free education to the poor
Provision of minimum wages etc.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 4 Law

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 4th Lesson Law Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 4th Lesson Law

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Law. Explain its various sources.
(or)
Question 2.
What is meant by law? Discuss the various sources of law.
Answer:
Introduction :
Law is an important concept in the study of political science. It is an important feature of modem state. Law regulates the external behaviour of individuals. It determines and regulates the nature of individual’s activities.

Individual’s life, social order, political system, economic transactions, cultural activities etc., remain paralysed in the absence of laws.

It is due to the deterioration of legal system that public life, governmental organisations, and state activities were affected to a great extent in some contemporary states. Afghanistan, Iraq, Nigeria, Somalia, Soviet Union, Ukraine, Yemen, Palestine etc., are some examples of such states.

Meaning :
The term “Law” is derived from the Teutonic (German) word “Lag” which means “To Lay”, “To Set” or something fixed.

The second dimension is that the word “Law” had its roots in the Latin words “Jus and Jungere” which means bond or Tie.

Definitions:
Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below :

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of rights and obligations which the State enforces”. – T.H. Green
“Law is a general rule of external action enforced by the sovereign political authority”. – T.E. Holland
“Law is a body of rules which the State recognises and applies in the administration of Justice”. – John Salmond

Sources of Law :
Law is a product of history. It has passed through various stages of development. Several elements have contributed to its evolution. In Legal sense, the state is the main source of law. Professor T.E. Holland mentioned six sources of Law. They are

Customs
Religion
Judicial Decisions
Scientific Commentaries
Equity and
Legislature.

1) Customs, Practices, and Traditions:
These are one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no laws in written form. All disputes were settled in accordance with social customs and traditions. Customs regulated the social life in the early societies. Customs and traditions cannot be laws in political sense. But, when the State recognises certain traditions, they in turn become laws. For example, the laws relating to marriage, divorce etc., found in our Country are based on traditions, the common law of England.

2) Religion :
In ancient times customary laws and religious laws were intermixed. The religious teachers enjoyed unlimited powers in those times. Their decisions were treated on par with laws. The primitive men believed that the judgements of the religious teachers had divine sanction. The ancient Roman laws were merely the religious laws. The Hindu and Muslim laws derived inspiration mainly from religion.

3) Judicial Decisions/Adjudication/Judgement of the Courts :
The judgements of the judges also serve as a source of law. Generally, judges interpret laws, apply them to particular cases and deliver judgements. Their judgements become precedents and are usually followed by other judges in similar cases. In course of time such judgements acquire the status of law. In this way, judges add to the law of the country. There are many instances that new laws have evolved by way of interpretation. Many of the laws in Britain, America, and India have originated from the judgements of the Judges of the respective countries.

4) Scientific Commentaries :
These are the works of great Jurists. The views of the Jurists expressed in their works also act as and important source of law. The Jurists collect and compare the past customs and laws with those of the present. While doing so, they point out the defects in the existing laws and suggest ways for their improvement. The views of the Jurists however, do not become laws. But, they become laws when they are recognised by the courts. For example, the writings of Coke and Black Stone in the U.K. are held in high esteem. The same is the position of Story and Kent in America and the Vignaneswara and Apararka in India.

5) Equity:
Equity means fairness or justice. It is also a kind of Judge – made law. It is an informal method Of making a new law or altering an old law to new conditions. Some-times, the courts may be confronted with the disputes about which the law is silent. Under such situation, the Judge will give relief to the aggrieved party by using principles of social justice and humanism common-sense. In course of time, they acquire the status of law. In equity, Judge is adding to the law what is missing therein and creating a new one.

6) Legislature :
This is the most important and direct source of law. Most of the laws now-a-days are made by the legislatures. Hence, legislatures are regarded as “Law-Making Factories”. They frame new laws, amend the existing laws and if necessary, abolish old laws. The other sources of Law have been replaced by the legislature. This, however, does not mean that they have no role to play in influencing laws. While framing laws, the legislators bear in mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions etc.

Question 3.
Explain Maclver’s classification of Laws.
Answer:
Meaning :
The English word Law’ originates from the ancient Teutonic word ‘Lag’ which means “something that lies fixed or uniform”.

Definitions :

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is a general rule of external action enforced by the sovereign political authority”. – T.E. Holland

Classification of Law:
Many political philosophers gave their classifications on laws in different ways, of them the classification given by Maclver is mention worthy.

Law is mainly classified into two types namely i) Natural Law ii) Positive Law.
Law is further divided into National Law and International Law.
National Law is further grouped into constitutional law and ordinary law.
Ordinary Law is again classified into public law and private law.

Public Law is further divided into Administrative Law and general law. General law is divided into statutory law, case Law and common law.

The above classification of Law can be explained in the following points.

1) Natural Law :
Natural Law is also known as divine law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human agency. It is considered as the gift of nature based on metaphysical power. It refers to the use of reason to analyse human nature. It is written in the heart of human beings by the finger of God.

2) Positive Law :
Positive Law is created by the human Agency. It is also known as political law. It is framed on the basis of the existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the Sovereign Political Authority. Violation of positive law leads to punishment.

Positive Law is further classified into two categories – A) National Law and B) International Law.

A) National Law :
National Law is also known as law of the state. It confines to the territorial limits of the state. It is enforced by the sovereign, is applicable to all the people in a state. It is enforced by the sovereign, is applicable to all the people in a state.

B) International Law :
International Law is one which regulates the cordial relations among various states. National Law is further divided into two categories
i) Constitutional Law and
ii) Ordinary Law.

i) Constitutional Law:
It is a basic law of any state. It defines the political system. All the basic principles of administration are included in this type. All other laws in the state are subservient to constitutional law. It is framed by the constituent assembly.

ii) Ordinary Law :
It determines the relation between the state, administration and people. These laws are framed by a group of officials authorised by law. Ordinary law is further divided into
A) Public law and
B) Private law.

A) Public Law :
It regulates the relation between people and state. These laws are formulated by state for society.

B) Private Law :
It regulates the relation between citizens. It protects the rights of citizens. It is also called civil law.

Public Law is further divided into i) Administrative Law and ii) General Law.

C) Administrative Law:
It regulates the administrative relations between the authorities and people. Administrative law brings discipline among the personnel in the government. Now it is implementing in France and India.

D) General Law :
It deals with the private affairs of individual in relation to the state. It covers the laws relating to marriage, divorce, contract etc. General Law is further classified into
i) Statutory law
ii) Common law.

i) Statutory Law:
Statutory law is the greater part of modem law. It is enacted by the Legislature of a state for the day to day administration. Ex : The Parliament in India, the Congress in United States, and Parliament in Britain formulate this type of law.

ii) Common Law :
Common law is a customary law. It is a product of customs and traditions which are popular among the people. The courts accept common law as a part of the legal system.

Question 4.
Explain the relationship between Law and Liberty.
Answer:
Law and Liberty are the two fundamental concepts in political science. These two concepts are interdependent. There is no unanimity of opinion among political philosophers in regard to the relation between Law and Liberty.

There are two different schools which gave contradictory opinions. One school of thought believed that Law and Liberty are antithetical to each other. The other school of thought believed that Law and Liberty are inter-related to each other. Let us explain the two versions.

i) Law and Liberty are Antithetical :
Individualists like J.S.Mill, Herbert Spencer, David Ricardo, Adam Smith believed that law always restricts the activities of human beings. The State is the principal agency which destroys individual’s liberties. It will not “allow the citizens to take active part in the affairs of State and Government. Similarly, it becomes a hurdle in performing the economic activities of the Nation. The recent liberalised economic policies in many countries changed the pace of their economies. These policies enabled the people to freely participate in economic activities. Therefore, individualists believed that state is a necessary evil institution. They stated that the Government is the best which governs the least. Therefore Law and Liberty are antithetical to each other.

ii) Law and Liberty are complementary :
The socialists and communists believed that Law and Liberty are complementary to each other. They regarded the State as a welfare agency. Law imposes restrictions essential for the social welfare. It is a fact that the capitalist class exploited the working class. The State shall eradicate the evils of exploitation by making necessary laws.

The idealists believed that State is a Moral Agency The State represents the general will of the community. Individuals will be free when they obey the laws of the State. Moussolini gave a slogan “Nothing against the State”. Law always protects the interests of the people. Therefore both the concepts of Law and Liberty are complementary to each other.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Law and mention the features of law.
Answer:
Law is an important concept in the study of political science. It is an important feature of Modern State. Law regulates the external behaviour of individuals.

Meaning:
The term “Law” is derived from the Teutonic word “Lag” which means something fixed.

Features of Law :
The following are some important features of law.

Law comprises some rules and regulations which are approved by the Sovereign.
It is enforced by the State. It is valid because it is sanctioned by the State.
It is definite, precise and universal.
It reflects the will of the people.
Any violation of law leads to punishment.
Laws are compulsory and cohesive in nature.
Law aims at securing and promoting the individual and general welfare.
Law is dynamic as it goes on changing according to the needs of the people.

Question 2.
Discuss different kinds of law.
Answer:
Many political philosophers gave their classifications on laws in different ways. Of them the classification given by Maclver is mentioned worthy which can be explained in the following points.

1. Natural Law :
Natural law is also known as divine law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human agency. It is considered as the gift of nature, based on metaphysical power. It refers to the use of reason to analyse human nature. It is written in the heart of human beings by the finger of God.

2. Positive Law :
Positive law is created by the human agency. It is also known as political law. It is framed on the basis of the existing social and political conditions. It is sanctioned by the Sovereign Political Authority. Violation of positive law leads to punishment.

3. Constitutional Law:
It is a basic law of any state. It defines the political system. All the basic principles of administration are included in this type. All other laws in the State are subservient to constitutional law. It is framed by the constituent assembly.

4. Ordinary Law :
It determines the relation between the State, Administration and people. These laws are framed by a group of officials authorised by law.

5. Public Law :
It regulates the relation between people and state. These laws are formulated by State for Society.

6. Private Law :
It regulates the relation between citizens. It protects the rights of citizens. It also called civil law.

7. Administrative Law:
It regulates the administrative relations between the authorities and people. Administrative law brings discipline among the personnel in the government. Now it is implementing in France and India.

8. General Law:
It deals with the private affairs of individual in relation to the State. It covers the laws relating to Marriage, Divorce, Contract etc.

9. Statutory Law:
Statutory law is the greater part of modem law. It is enacted by the Legislature of a State for the day to day Administration.

10. Common Law :
Common law is o customary law. It is a product of customs and traditions which are popular among the people. The courts accept common law as a part of the legal system.

Question 3.
Write about any three sources of Law.
Answer:
Definitions:
The English word ‘Law’ originates from the ancient Teutonic word ‘Lag’ which means “something that lies fixed or uniform”. Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below :

“Law is the command of the sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of rights and obligations which the State enforces”.- T.H. Green

Sources of Law:
1) Customs, Practices, and Traditions:
These are one of the important sources of law. In primitive societies, there were no laws in written form. All disputes were settled in accordance with social customs and traditions. Customs regulated the social life in the early societies. Customs and traditions cannot be laws in political sense. But, when the State recognises certain traditions, they in turn become laws. Ex: The laws relating to marriage, divorce etc., found in our Country are based on traditions, the common law of England.

3) Judicial Decisions / Adjudication / Judgement of the Courts :
The judgements of the judges also serve as a source of law. Generally, judges interpret laws, apply them to particular cases and deliver judgements. Their judgements become precedents and are usually followed by other judges in similar cases. In course of time such judgements ac- quire the status of law. In this way judges add to the law of the country. There are many instances that new laws have evolved by way of interpretation. Many of the laws in Britain, America and India have originated from the judgements of the Judges of the respective countries.

Question 4.
Distinguish between Law and Morality.
Answer:

Law	Morality
1) Law is concerned with the external behaviour of individuals.	1) Morality is concerned with the whole life of individuals.
2) Law is a concern of the State.	2) Morality is concerned with individual conscience.
3) Law is backed by the coercive power.	3) Public opinion and individual conscience lie behind morality.
4) Law is definite and precise.	4) Morality is vague and uncertain.
5) Law acts within the Territory of a State.	5) Moral principles are universal in Nature.
6) Law is enacted with a specific objective.	6) Moral principles are inherent in Society.
7) Laws are sanctioned by the Sovereign.	7) Moral principles are sanctioned by the society.
8) Law is the subject matter of political science.	8) Moral principles are the subject matter of ethics.
9) Violation of law leads to punishment.	9) Violation of moral principles does not leads to punishment.
10) There is a definite agency to make and implement the law.	10) There is no such agency in the case of moral principles.

Question 5.
“Law and Liberty are Antithetical” – Analyse this statement
Answer:
Individualists like J.S.Mill, Herbert spencer, David Ricardo, Adam Smith believed that law always restricts the activities of human beings. The state is the Principal Agency which destroys individual liberties. It will not allow the citizens to take active part in the affairs of State and Government. Similarly, it becomes a hurdle in performing the economic activities of the nation.

The recent liberalised economic policies in many countries changed the pace of their economies. These policies enabled the people to freely participate in economic activities. Therefore, individualists believed that state is a necessary evil institution. They stated that the Government is the best which governs the least. Therefore law and liberty are antithetical to each other.

Question 6.
How Law and Liberty are complementary?
Answer:
Law and Liberty are the two fundamental concepts in political science. These two concepts are interdependent. The socialists and communists believed that Law and Liberty are complementary to each other. They regarded the State a Welfare Agency. Law imposes restrictions essential for the social welfare. It is a fact that the capitalist class exploited the working class. The state shall eradicate the evils of exploitation by making necessary laws.

The idealists believed that state is a moral agency. The state represents the general will of the community. Individuals will be free when they obey the laws of the state. Mussolini gave a slogan “Nothing against the State”. Law always protects the interests of the people. Therefore both the concepts of law and liberty are complementary to each other.

Question 7.
In what way are law and morality related to each other?
Answer:
Law and morality are considered as the basic pillars of social institutions. The two elements play a vital role in the maintenance of peace, security and prosperity in society. They have different versions with common objective. They are interrelated and interdependent. Some political philosophers believed that law and morality are one and the same. In this context R. G. Gettle stated thus “Law and Morality were both identical. Both arise as a result of habits and experience in primitive social life when moral and social lives were not separate. Inspite of certain differences, Law and Morality are meant for common welfare. Both deal with individual as a moral agent of society. Ex : In ancient India the term “Dharma” denotes both law and morality. The Greek political philosophers identified the two as same.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the origin of the term “Law”. [A.P. 2019]
Answer:
The term “LAW’ is derived from the Teutonic route (German) “Lag” which means “To Lay”, “To Set” or something fixed. The second dimension is that the word “Law” had its roots in the Latin Words “Jus and Jungere” which mean bond or tie.

Question 2.
Write any two definitions of Law.
Answer:
Political thinkers defined law in different ways which are listed below.

“Law is the command of the Sovereign”. – John Austin
“Law is the system of Rights and obligations which the state enforces”. – T.H. Green

Question 3.
What are the features of Law?
Answer:
The following are some important features of law

It is enforced by the State.
It is definite, precise and universal.
It reflects the will of the people.
Laws are compulsory and cohesive in nature.
Any violation of law leads to punishment.

Question 4.
Define the term “Rule of Law”. [A.P. 19, 15; T.S. 17, 15]
Answer:
Rule of Law is an important type of administration of justice. It originated in England. It implies :

Legal Equality : All are equal before law.
No Arbitrary Action : Punishment is given only when an existing law is violated.
No Special Rights : No individual is above law and law does not recognise any special privileges.

Question 5.
What is Natural Law?
Answer:
Natural Law is also known as Divine Law. It is abstract. It is not created by any human agency. It is considered as the gift of nature, based on metaphysical power. It refers to the use of reason to analyse human nature. It is written in the heart of human beings by the finger of God.

Question 6.
What do you mean by Administrative Law?
Answer:
Administrative law plays an important role in the smooth functioning of administration. It regulates the administrative relations between the authorities and people. It helps the Government to bring reforms in the sphere of development and welfare programmes. Administrative law brings discipline among the personnel in the Government. Now it is implementing in France and India.

Question 7.
Write any three sources of Law. [T.S. 2017]
Answer:
Professor T.E. Holland mentioned six sources of law. They are

Customs
Religion
Judicial decisions
Scientific commentaries
Equity and
Legislature.

Question 8.
What is Constitutional Law? [A.P. Mar. 18]
Answer:
The basic law according to which the Government in a State is conducted is called constitutional law. It defines the political system. It is usually prepared by a body known as Constituent Assembly, formed only for that purpose. All other laws in the State are subordinate to this law. It also contains fundamental rights and fundamental duties.

Question 9.
Define Public Law.
Answer:
Public law regulates the relations between state and individuals. It explains the basic structure and functions of the State. It covers the basic rights of the individuals against the interference of the State. It must be followed by the citizens. Its violation leads to punishment.

Question 10.
Define the term Equity.
Answer:
Equity means fairness or justice. It is also a kind of Jude – Made law. It is an informal method of making a new law or altering an old law to new conditions. Sometimes, the courts may be confronted with the disputes about which the law is silent. Under such situation, the Judge will give relief to the aggrieved party by using principles of social justice and humanism common-sense. In course of time, they acquire the status of law. In equity Judge is adding to the law what is missing therein and creating a new one.

Question 11.
What do you mean by Scientific Commentaries?
Answer:
These are the works of great Jurists. The views of the Jurists expressed in their works also act as an important source of law. The Jurists collect and compare the past customs and laws with those of the present. While doing so, they point out the defects in the existing laws and suggest ways for thier improvement. The views of the Jurists however, do not become laws. But, they become laws when they are recognised by the courts. Ex : The writings of Coke and Black Stone in the U.K. are held in high esteem. The same is the position of Story and Kent in America and the Vignaneswara and Apararka in India.

Question 12.
What is the role of Legislature in law making Laws?
Answer:
This is the most important and direct soruce of law. Most of the laws now-a-days are made by the legislatures. Hence, legislatures are regarded as “Law-making Factories”. They frame new laws, amend the existing laws and if necessary, abolish old laws. The other sources of law have been replaced by the legislature. This, however, does not mean that they have no role to play influencing laws. While framing laws, the legislators bear in mind the customs, religious practices, judicial decisions etc.

Question 13.
What is meant by Statutory Law?
Answer:
Statutory law is an important part of modem law. it is enacted by the legislature of a state for the day to day administration. For instance, the Parliament in India, the Congress in United States and Parliament in Britain formulate this type of law.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 3 Nationalism

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 3rd Lesson Nationalism Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 3rd Lesson Nationalism

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Nationality. Explain the Essential Elements of Nationality.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationality have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feeling prior to the two world wars.

The Events that took place in the erstwhile Soviet Union, ethnic Riots between Serbians and croatians in the former Yugo slavia, the unification of East and west Germanies, the peace talks between Israel and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) on West Asia etc., reflect the serious concern of the people for realising Nationality and Nation States.

Meaning :
The Word “Nation” is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common Descent”.

Definitions :
1. R.G. Gettle:
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of Race, Language, Religion, Traditions and History.

2. J.H. Rose :
“Nationality is a union of Hearts once made and never unmade”.

3. J.W. Garner:
“Nationality is a group or portion of population which is united by Racial and other bonds”.

Essential Elements of Nationality :

1) Purity of Race :
Racial purity helps in the formation and strengthening of the idea of Nationality. Race is a physical phenomenon. It depends on certain distinctions of skull, stature, hair, complexion etc. These distinctions serve as a cementing bond among the members of a group.

But we should remember that common race is not an indispensable factor in the growth of Nationality. Modem races are so mixed that none of them can claim to be pure. Pure races have disappeared because of wars and migrations. Racial purity is now a myth only.
Ex : Canada and United states have transformed into single nations inspite of their racial diversities in their respective populations. Similarly, Australia and Britain are two distinct Nations although they belong to one racial stock.

2) Common Language :
Language plays a key role in the promotion of nationality. The philosophers and scientists said that common language is essential for the development of nationality. Language is a medium to express all their feelings. It helps to express one’s ownselves to have cordial relations and to share the miseries and happiness in a group languages also promotes common feelings and traditions. Common language promotes the feeling of oneness and keeps the entire race on single track.

3) Common Religion:
Religion is one important factor to strengthen nationality. There are many instances when people of different nationalities with common religion remain citizens in the same state. For instance, the main reason for the partition of Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947 lies in the religion.

4) Geographical Unity :
Geographical unity is necessary for the emergence of nationality. Nationality sentiments prevail and develop among the people living in a single geographical area. The people residing in such an area love, worship their country and make sacrifices for the sake of their motherland. People, who belong to one religion, converse the same language, same race living in a geographical area inculcate- and improve their nationality sentiments. The formation of Israel in 1946 was purely due to the feelings of the hitherto wandering Jewish people to live in a single geographical area. Hence their desire of live in a territory made them united- This ultimately transformed them as patriotic persons.

5) Common History :
Common History is considered as an important element of Na-tionality. It invokes an inspiration among the people and binds them together. Some historical incidents may give a chance to the people to develop national sentiments. Ex : Indians have learnt the lessons of Nationalism from the British legacy.

6) Common Culture:
Culture in its broad sense means a way of life. It is reflected through certain common elements like dress, customs, conventions, food habits, religious beliefs, ethical values etc. They easily develop into a single Nation. These elements bind the people together and hold together.

7) Common Political aspirations :
Nationality sentiments prevail and develop among the people having common political aspirations. The political ideas, conventions, and institutions which were formed due to the single political rule will have a considerable impact and influence over the people. For instance, the Swiss people love very much their direct democratic devices in political matters. Similarly the Americans express the feeling of worship towards their constitution. The British people also feel proud of their political and judicial institutions like rule of law, parliamentary democracy and judicial review etc.

8) Common Economic ties:
This element of nationality has been stressed by ‘Karl Marx’. Since then onwards the importance of this element has been increasing. The Russians have great regard for their economic system, eventhough there exist diversities. Their unflinching love for socialism inspired nationalism among them. They successfully repulsed the attacks of Germany during the Second World War. Thus the common economic ties made them united and integrated them into a nation.

Question 2.
Discuss the relation between Nation and Nationalism.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationalism have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feelings prior to the two world wars.

Meaning :
The word “Nation” and “Nationalism” are used as complementary to each other.

The word Nation is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common descent”.

Nation:
“Nation is a Nationality which has organised itself into a political body, either independent or desiring to be independent”.

Nationalism :
“Nationalism is a state of mind in which the supreme loyalty of the individual is felt to be due to the Nation state.”

Relationship between “Nation” and “Nationalism”:

Nationalism is a psychological feeling prevailing in the minds of the people.
People through the feeling of Nationalism sacrifice all their interests for the sake of their Nation.
The strong desire of the people of a nationality to emerge as a nation state is nationalism.
The seeds of nationalism originated in the cultural renaissance of Europe in 16th century.
In French Revolution (1789) pushed the nationalism further in Europe and took to the great heights.
The Vienna congress (1815) further supported the cause of nationalism in Europe.
The Italian and German unifications boosted the cause of nationalism.
The American War of Independence (1774) was a great leap forward in spreading nationalism among the people.
The much publicized theory of Nation’s self-determination of Woodrow Wilson in 1917 was further generated hope among the people of the world to form Nation States.
The two world wars completed to redraft the European map with the formation of Nation-states.
The Freedom struggles and national aspiration of the people of the Asia, Africa, and Latin America are fulfilled with the formation of Nation states immediately after the end of II-World war.
The Indian national movement from 1885 to 1947 had fulfilled with the formation of India and Pakistan as an Independent States.

In this regard, we can understand that the feeling of nationalism when it acquires unity and independence. It becomes a Sovereign Nation.
There were some writers who treated the two terms as synonymous.

Question 3.
Write a short note on demand for National Self-Determination.
Answer:
The theory of National self-determination was advocated by the former president of the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson in 1917. It was much publicized and generated hope among the people of the world to form Nation states.

From then onwards, Demands for National self-determination has been raising in different parts of the world. The Right to national self determination has also asserted the national liberation movements in Asia and Africa, when they were struggling against colonial rule. Nationalist movements maintained that political independence would ensure dignity and recognition to the colonised people. They also helped the people by protecting their collective interests. Many Nationalist movements were inspired by the goal of bringing justice and prosperity to the nation.

However, it proved almost impossible to ensure that each cultural group, which claimed to be a distinct nation, could acheive political independence and statehood. As a result, migration of people, border wars and violence have continued to plague many countries in the region. Thus we have the paradoxical situation of nation-states which themselves had acheived independence through struggle now acting against minorities with in their own territories which claim the right to national self-determination. Virtually every state in the world today faces the dilemma of how to deal with the movements of national self-determination and raised doubts about the right to national self-determination.

More and More people began realising that the solution does not lie in creating new states but in making existing states more democratic and equal. That is in ensuring that people with different cultural and ethmic indentives live and co-exist as partners (arising) and equal citizens with in the country. This may be essential not only for resolving problems arising out of new claims for self-determination but also for building a strong and United State.

Question 4.
Write a short note on “Whether India is a Nation”?
(or)
Explain breifly whether India is a Nation.
Answer:
Many western and oriental writers described that India is indeed a Nation. There are strong reasons to justify that India is a nation.

Indians have a common history and culture.
They have demonstrated their distinct qualities of National integration on many occassions.
Indians have expressed their dedication to make unparalled and supreme sacrifices for the accomplishment of Independence.
They fought unitedly against the foreign yoke under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
Although the people belong to different regions and provinces, they realised the basic fact that they are all first and fore most Indians. Then only, they owe indebtedness to their respective religions and languages.
Some common elements concerning national anthem, national heritage, culture constitution and the government inspire the nationalist feelings and inculcate the national integration among the people.
Indians demonstrated their distinct qualities of National integration on many occassions. During India’s Aggression by China and Pakistan, the Indians extended unequivocal support to the government.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Briefly explain the essential elements of Nationality.
Answer:
Introduction :
The concepts of Nation and Nationality have become important components in the domain of International Relations and political science respectively. Both inspired the people of several countries with patriotic feeling prior to the two world wars.

Meaning :
The Word “Nation” is derived from a latin word “NATIO” which means “BORN” (BIRTH) or “Common Descent”.

Definitions :
1. R.G. Gettle:
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of Race, Language, Religion, Traditions and History.

2. J.H. Rose :
“Nationality is a union of Hearts once made and never unmade”.

3. J.W. Garner:
“Nationality is a group or portion of population which is united by Racial and other bonds”.

Essential Elements of Nationality :

7) Common Political aspirations :
Nationality sentiments prevail and develop among the people having common political aspirations. The political ideas, conventions and institutions which were formed due to the single political rule will have a considerable impact and influence over the people. For instance, the Swiss people love very much their direct democratic devices in political matters. Similarly the Americans express the feeling of worship towards their constitution. The British people also feel proud of their political and judicial institutions like rule of law, parliamentary democracy and judicial review etc.

Question 2.
In what way do “Nation” and “State” differ from each other?
Answer:
Several Nation-States came into existence after the two world wars, on the basis of the principle of self-determination. The terms “Nation” and “State” were used synonymously. Even the political experts used both these words homogeneously and intermixingly as if both had same meaning. However, in practice both these terms are not same and identical.

Nation:
“Nation is a nationality which has organized itself into a political body either Independent or desiring to be independent”.

State :
“State is a people organized for law within definite territory”.

Differences:
The concepts of Nation and State differ from one another from the following points of view:

Nation	State
1) Nation is an independent political community or an integral part of a multi-national state.	1) State may consist of the people of the same nation or many nations.
2) Nation preceeds the state.	2) State follows the nation. The final form of a nation is the accomplishment of statehood.
3) Nation is historical and cultural in its evolution.	3) State is political and legal structure.
4) Nation is the community of people who exist together for a common goal and who were united by psychological feeling of oneness.	4) State is a people organised by law in a definite territory.
5) Nation is the culmination of a long coexistence of the people.	5) State need not be evolutionary in nature. It may come into existence either by unification of the smaller independent political communities or by partition.

Question 3.
Describe the various phases of Nationalism.
Answer:
Introduction :
Nationalism is an effective force in modern politics. Nationalism is a psychological feeling prevailing in the minds of the people. People through this feeling sacrifice all their interests for the sake of their nation.

Meaning :
Nationalism is a state of mind in which the supreme loyalty of the Individual is felt to be due to the Nation State.

Broadly speaking the term “Nationalism” is generally used to describe two phenomenon. They are mentioned as follows :

The attitude of the members of a Nation towards their national identity.
The action of the members of a Nation towards the goal of achieving self-determination.

Different (or) various phases of Nationalism :
According to Snyder, there are four phases of nationalism namely.

1) Integrative Nationalism (1815 – 71) :
During this period nationalism was a unifying force and found solid expression in the unification of Italy and Germany.

2) Disruptive Nationalism (1871-90) :
During this period, subject nationalities of Austria – Hungary and other multinational states clamoured for independence.

3) Aggressive Nationalism (1890-1945) :
During this period, Nationalism became virtually identical with aggressive imperialism. This led to the clash of opposing national interests in the form of two world wars.

4) Contemporary Nationalism :
During the early years of the contemporary period, political nationalism manifested in the form of revolts against European Masters. Nationalism indeed has become a slogan, A school of thought, a movement and a fight for certain political or sovereign objective in Afro-Asian and Latin American countries.

Question 4.
Describe the relative importance of”Nation” and “Nationality”.
Answer:
The concepts of Nation and Nationality laid formidable foundations to several modem political systems. These concepts promoted the bonds of unity, fraternity and integrity among the people of a particular country. The existence of the modem states is by and large, rooted in these zealous concepts.

The two concepts have similarity in their origin. Both the words were derived from a latin word “Natio” which means birth or descent. Some political writers like lord Bryce and Hayes described that people will form into a nation when they achieve political independence. Such a nation originates when people had sentiments.

A state emerges due to the influence of nationality and nation. Nationalism and nationality profoundly influenced the people of a nation in building their own states and moulding their economic prosperity. The concepts of the nation and nationality transformed the people of Europe, Afro-Asian and latin American countries into nation-states hence, these great ideals strengthened understanding and unity among the people.

Question 5.
What are the differences between Nation and Nationality? [A.P. Mar. 19, 18; T.S. Mar. 15]
Answer:
The concepts of Nation and Nationality laid formidable foundations to several modem political systems.

Nation :
“Nation is a nationality which has organised itself into a political body either independent or desiring to be independent”.

Nationality:
“Nationality is a population having the common bonds of race, language, religion, traditions and history”.

Differences between Nation and Nationality :

Nation	Nationality
1) Nation is a political concept.	1) Nationality is a psychological feeling.
2) Nation is always a politically organised state.	2) Nationality is always an unorganised and flexible feeling.
3) Nation is always independent.	3) Nationality is not independent.
4) There can’t be a nation without nationaltiy.	4) There can be nationality without a nation.
5) People who form into a nation should obey the laws of the state.	5) Untill the people of nationality form into a nation. There can’t be constitutional laws. But they oblige certain common rules in their best interests.

Question 6.
Write a short notes on National Self-Determination.
Answer:
The theory of national self-determination was advocated by the former president of the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson in 1917. From then onwards nationalism became a world-wide phenomenon. This principle implies that every nation should be organised as an independent political entity. It raises the question whether every nationality has the right to be a self governing or sovereign state.

Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern themselves and determine their future development. In making this claim, a nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international community of its status as a distinct political entity or state. Quite often these claims come from the people who lived together in a given land for a long period having sense of common identity. Such claims of self-determination were frequently made in the 19th century in Europe. The nation of one culture – one state began to gain acceptability at that time. Subsequently, this idea was employed while reordering state boundaries after the first World war. The treaty of Versailles led to the formation of several small and newly independent states.

The Right to national self-determination has asserted the National liberation movements in Asia and Africa when they were struggling against colonial rule. Nationalist movements maintained that political independence would ensure dignity and recognition to the colonised people.

Question 7.
Is India a Nation State? Explain.
Answer:
It is interesting to know whether India is a Nation-State. Some say that India is a uni-national state. As against this some state that it is a Multi-National State. It is argued that India is a Uni-National State rather than a Multi-National State due to the following reasons.

It consists of people who possess the features of uni-national state like common history, common culture and traditions.
The Indians showed their spirit of National integration on many occassions after in-dependence.
They stood as one and extended support to their government when our country was faced with wars from Pakistan and China in 1962 and 1965 respectively.
They stood united under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi throughout the freedom struggle against the British rule in India.
From the begining, our country won name and fame for its unity in diversity. Even- though the people of India belong to different regions, they are Indians first and Indians in the last resort i.e., they owe indebtedness to their respective religions and languages.
Some common elements concerning national anthem, national heritage, culture, constitution, national flag and the government inspire the nationalist feelings and inculcate the national integration among the people.
People celebrate all the national festivals with great enthusiasm and spirit.

Hence we may say that India is a nation state with the characteristic features of unity in diversity.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is meant by Nationality?
Answer:
Nationality is derived from the Latin word “Natio”. which means birth. It is a spiritual sentiment or feeling of oneness. This emotional feeling of oneness or unity is caused due to factors like common race, common language, common religion, common territory, common history and culture, common political aspirations etc. Nationality is not politically organised. There can be no nation without nationality.

Question 2.
Define Nation.
Answer:
Nation is derived from two Latin words – “Nates” and “Natio” which means birth. Lord Bryce defined it as “A Nation is a nationality which has organised itself into a political body, either independent or desiring to be independent. “It means that the people of country are called as a National if they are united by characteristics of nationality and have a strong desire for political independence or if they are politically free.

Question 3.
Write any two differences between Nation and State.
Answer:

Nation	State
1. Nation is an independent political community or an integral part of a Multi-National state.	1. State may consist of the people of the same Nation or many nations.
2. Nation is Historical and cultural in its evolution.	2. State is a political and Legal structure.

Question 4.
Mention any two connotations of Nationality.
Answer:

Nationality Refers to the legal status of citizens in a particular state. Here it refers to one’s status as a citizen of the state which he belongs to.
Nationality denotes a particular kind of feelings and sentiments that binds the people together. It differentiates such people from these of other Nationalities.

Question 5.
Mention any two essential elements of Nationality.
Answer:
Nationality is derived from the Latin word “Natio”. Which means birth. It is a spiritual sentiment or feeling or oneness. This emotional feeling of oneness or unity is caused due to factors like common race, common language, common religion, common territory, common history and culture, common political aspirations etc. Nationality is not politically organised. There can be no nation without nationality.

Question 6.
What is the importance of Nationalism?
Answer:
Nationalism is an effective force in modem politics and it played prominent role in the world Affairs. It’s importance can be analysed from the following points.

Nationalism inspired the people and created deep hatredness among the people.
It helped in liberalising the people from oppressive rule.
It became a deciding factor in the breakup of many empires and states.

Question 7.
Write any two merits of Nationalism.
Answer:

Nationalism made the people obey the government.
It helped in achieving the progress of a nation in a short period.

Question 8.
Mention any two de-merits of Nationalism.
Answer:

Nationalism makes the people extremely proud, Jealous and arrogant as was clear from the history of Germany and Italy.
It leads to unnecessary and unhealthy competition among the nations is economic matters.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 2 State

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 2nd Lesson State Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 2nd Lesson State

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define State and explain its essential elements.
Answer:
Introduction:
State is an important political organisation. The study of political science begins and ends with the state. The term state for the first time, was used by an Italian political thinker, Machiavlly in his famous book “The Prince” in 16th century.

Meaning :
The word state is derived from a Tuetonic word “status” which means political organisation.

Definitions:

“State is a people organised for law within a definite Territory” – Woodrow Wilson.
“State is a politically organised people of a definite Territory” – Bluntschlli.
“State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions. – Harold. J. Lasld.

Essential elements of state:
State is the predominant and superior politico – social institution existing in the society. It consists of 4 essential elements. These elements of state may be explained in a detailed way in the following paragraphs.

1) Population :
Population is the fundamental and essential element of state. There can be no state without population. Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau and others considered this feature as an important one. The famous poet Sri. Gurajada Apparao also states that it is the people, rather than the land, that comprise the state. Political writers differ in their opinions regarding the exact size of population possessed by the state.

While Plato fixed 5,040, Rousseau fixed 10,000 to be an ideal population for a state. But today we can find the countries like China and India which have more than 100 crores of population on one hand and the countries like Andora, San Marino are having small number of people on the other hand is the modem world.

2) Territory:
Territory is another essential element of the state. It is necessary for the origin and existence of the state. There can be no state without territory. Every state must have more or less territory of its own. There is no unanimous opinion among the political writers regarding the size of territory of the state. Some preferred vast territory, where as others preferred small territory. But today we can find the countries like America and Canada having large territory on one hand, and the countries like Vatican, Monaco having very less territory on the other hand in the modem world.

3) Government:
Government is the third essential element of the state. There can be no state without government. State enforces its authority through the government. Government consists of 3 organs namely
Legislature – which makes laws
Executive – which implements laws and
Judiciary – which interpretes laws.

Government are of different kinds namely, Unitary, Federal, Parliamentary and Presidential governments. Governments are at different levels like Local, State level and National level.

4) Sovereignty:
Sovereignty is the most essential element of the state. It is spirit and soul of the state. There can be no state without sovereignty. It distinguishes the state from other associations and institutions. Sovereignty is the supreme political power of the state over citizens and subjects.

Question 2.
In what aspects do state and Government differ from each other? Explain.
Answer:
Introduction :
We often use the terms “State” and “Government” indiscriminately one for the other”. State means government in practice” said by H.J. Laski. “State means almost government machinery”.

Relationship between State and Government:
The relationship between state and government can be discussed as follows.
1) Both are established by individuals :
State and government are two important organizations established by Individuals. The two came into existence for protecting the people and for regulating the conditions between them.

2) Complementary :
State is the government for all practical purposes. Government carries on its activities in the name of the state whatever government does. It does in the name of the state. The Stuart king in England and Louis XIV in France viewed the state and government as complementary.

3) The will of the state expressed by the government:
Government is an important element of state. The collective will of the state is expressed and implemented through government. Government is described as the “Brain of state”. Laws which reflect the will of the state are formulated and given effect only by the government.

Differences between State and Government :
The following are the differences between state and government.

State	Government
1. State has four elements namely population, territory, government and sovereignty.	1. Government is one of the essential elements of the state.
2. State is a permanent organisation.	2. Government is a temporary organisation.
3. State consists of the whole body of people – The rulers and the ruled.	3. Government consists of only the rulers.
4. State has the sovereignty.	4. Government does not have sovereignty.
5. State is the master.	5. Government is the servant.
6. Membership of the state is compulsory.	6. Membership in government is not compulsory. to that of state is narrow.
7. All states are alike in the sense they possess the same four features (or) elements like Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty.	7. Governments are different types, viz. Parliamentary – Presidential – Unitary – Federal, Democratic – Dictatorial etc.
8. Peoples are not entitled to revolt against the state.	8. People have the right to oppose and criti-cize the policies and programmes of the government.
9. The scope of state when compared to that of government is wider.	9. The scope of government when compared to that of state is narrow.

Question 3.
Explain the relationship and differences between State and Society.
Answer:
Introduction :
State and society are two important human organizations. Maclver described that blood relationship (kinship) created society and society in turn led to the state.

State :
State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Society :
Society is a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests and aspirations.

Relationship between State and Society :
The relationship between state and society can be discussed as follows.

1) Common features:
State and society have some common features. The two sometimes include practically. The same persons most cases, a vast majority of the members of a society may be included in the same state.

2) Complementary:
State and society go hand in hand. They help each other. Social progress depends upon the progress of the state. The working of the state is influenced by social customs and traditions.

3) Synonymous :
State and society were considered as the same in the past. In the beginning the Greek Philosophers and later the Idealists viewed the city states and society as synonymous.

4) Inter related:
State regulates the external conduct of individuals in society through laws. It provides a broad frame work of social order. Society nourishes the state with economic, cultural, religious and humanitarian activities. Thus state and society cannot be completely separated as different entities.

Differences between State and Society:
Inspite of close relationship, state and society differ from one another. This may be informed through the following table.

State	Society
1. State is a political organization.	1. Society is a social organization.
2. State regulates only the external relation of men in society.	2. Society controls both internal and external activities of men in society.
3. State possess the power of compulsion. Disobedience to its laws leads to punishment.	3. Society does not possess the power of compulsion. Disobedience to its principles does not leads to any physical punishment.
4. State derives its strength mainly from laws.	4. Society derives its strength from customs, conventions and traditions.
5. State has definite territory.	5. Society has no definite territory.
6. State has the sovereignty.	6. Society has no sovereignty.
7. Membership of the state is compulsory.	7. Membership of the society is voluntary.
8. State is permanent.	8. Society is not permanent.
9. Laws of the state are uniform.	9. Rules of society are not uniform.
10. State came into existence after the origin of society.	10. Society is much older institution than the state.

Question 4.
Describe the relationship and differences between State and Association.
Answer:
Introduction :
The social nature of man finds expression in numerous groups and associations which satisfy his various needs in life. Man cannot live in isolation. He seeks the cooperation and help of others to fulfill his needs and to develop his personality.

Intimate social relationship for achieving certain ends or purposes gives rise to the formation of associations.

State :
State is people organized for law within a definite territory.

Association :
Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose or a limited number of purposes.

Relationship between State and Association :
The state and association are related in the following aspects.
1) Same membership :
Both the state and other associations consist of a group of same human beings. So the same individuals remain members of both the state and associations.

2) Common interests:
Both are created and organized for the pursuit of an interest or a group of interests. Promotion of common interests in the moving force behind all forms of associations including the state.

3) Organization:
Both are characterized by organizations and a well-knit framework for realizing their objectives. Both regulate the activities of members. Both view cooperation as the basis among the members.

4) Code of conduct:
Both have a code of conduct denoting some rules and regulations. The code of conduct keeps the members together. It ensures stability to the organization.

5) Executive :
Every state will have an executive agency known as the government. Similarly every association will have an executive council for implementing its decisions.

Differences between State and Association :
State and association differ from one another in the following matters.

State	Association
1. State is a political organization.	1. Association is a social organization.
2. State has definite territory.	2. Association has no definite territory.
3. State has the sovereignty.	3. Association has no sovereignty.
4. Membership of the state is compulsory.	4. Membership of the association is not compulsory.
5. State is permanent.	5. Association is not permanent.
6. State is superior to the associations.	6. Associations are inferior to the state.
7. The scope of state is wide.	7. The scope of association is limited.
8. State can interfere in the affairs of the associations.	8. Associations can’t interfere in the affairs of the state.
9. Laws of the state are uniform.	9. Rules of association are not uniform.
10. State strives for the welfare and progress of all the people.	10. Associations are meant for realising the interests of the members only.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain any two essential elements of the State.
Answer:
Essential elements of state :
State is the predominant and superior politico-social institution existing in the society. It consists of 4 essential elements. These elements of state may be explained in a detailed way in the following paragraphs.

Question 2.
What are the other elements of State?
Answer:
Introduction:
State is an important political organization. It was established for regulating and improving the relations between individuals.

Definition :
“State is a people organised for law within a definite territory”. -Woodrow Wilson

Besides essential elements namely, population, territory, government and sovereignty, state will also have the other elements.

Other elements of the state :
1) International recognition :
It implies recognition of the sovereign status of a state by other states. This feature has gained currency due to the immerse technologlical and scientific advancements. The man of today is not only a member in his state but also a member of the entire world at large. Today majority of the countries of the world are joining in one or the other international associations to obtain certain benefits.

The United Nations Organisation is the best example for such associations. It’s membership is considered to be necessary for attaining perfect and complete statehood. Whenever a .new state comes into existence, it’s recognition by other states and by UN is considered as very essential.

2) Permanence :
State is a permanent institution. If the state surrenders to the other states during war or Aggression. It loses its significance but not the feature of permanence. Sometimes through the process of integration or disintegration, the states will change the form of their existence for instance. In 1990’s Soviet Union (Former USSR) got disintegrated and new 15 independent states came into being.

3) General obedience :
General obedience implies the supreme power of the state overall the individuals and institutions within its territorial limits. No person or association can deny the power or authority of the state. People can criticise the policies and programmes of the government but not the state. The obedience to the state is mandatory on the part of the people.

4) Popular will:
Willoughby stated that the will of the people is an important element of the stae. State continues to exist as long as it is supported by the majority of the people. The strong desire for protecting the state against invasions and internal revolutions is compulsory for the continuation of the state.

Question 3.
What do you know about Government and Sovereignly as the two essential elements of State?
Answer:
Government: Government is the third essential element of the state. There can be no state without government. State enforces its authority through the government. Government consists of 3 organs namely
Legislature – which makes laws
Executive – which implements laws and
Judiciary – which interpretes laws.

Government are of different kinds namely, Unitary, Federal, Parliamentary and Presidential governments. Governments are at different levels like Local, State level and National level.

Sovereignty :
Sovereignty is the most essential element of the state. It is spirit and soul of the state. There can be no state without sovereignty. It distinguishes the state from other associations and institutions. Sovereignty is the supreme political power of the state over citizens and subjects.

Question 4.
Describe the relationship between State and Society.
Answer:
Introduction : State and society are two important human organizations. Maclver described that blood relationship (kinship) created society and society in turn led to the state.

State :
State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Society :
Society is a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests and aspirations.

Relationship between State and Society :
The relationship between state and society can be discussed as follows.

3) Synonymous :
State and society were considered as the same in the past. In the beginning the Greek Philosophers and later the Idealists viewed the city states and society as synonymous.

4) Inter-related:
State regulates the external conduct of individuals in society through laws. It provides a broad frame work of social order. Society nourishes the state with economic, cultural, religious and humanitarian activities. Thus state and society cannot be completely separated as different entities.

Question 5.
Point out the differences between State and Society. [A.P. Mar, 19, 15]
Answer:
Introduction :
State and society are two important human organizations. Maclver described that blood relationship (kinship) created society and society in turn led to the state.

State :
State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Society :
Society is a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests and aspirations.

Differences between State and Society :
Inspite of close relationship, state and society differ from one another. This may be informed through the following table.

State	Society
1. State is a political organization.	1. Society is a social organization.
2. State regulates only the external relation of men in society.	2. Society controls both internal and external activities of men in society.
3. State has definite territory.	3. Society has no definite territory.
4. State has sovereignty.	4. Society has no sovereignty.
5. Membership of the state is compulsory.	5. Membership of the society is voluntary.
6. State is permanent.	6. Society is not permanent.
7. Laws of the state are uniform.	7. Rules of society are not uniform.
8. State came into existence after the origin of society.	8. Society is much older institution than the state.

Question 6.
What is the relationship between State and Association.
Answer:
Introduction :
The social nature of man finds expression in numerous groups and associations which satisfy his various needs in life. Man cannot live in isolation. He seeks the cooperation and help of others to fulfill his needs and to develop his personality.

State :
State is people organized for law within a definite territory.

Association :
Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose or a limited number of purposes.

Relationship between State and Association :
The state and association are related in the following aspects.

1) Same membership :
Both the state and other associations consist of a group of same human beings. So the same individuals remain members of both the state and associations.

4) Code of conduct:
Both have a code of conduct denoting some rules and regulations. The code of conduct keeps the members together. It ensures stability to the organization.

5) Executive :
Every state will have an executive agency known as the government. Similarly every association will have an executive council for implementing its decisions.

Question 7.
Mention the differences between State and Association.
Ansnswer:
Introduction :
The social nature of man finds expression in numerous groups and associations which satisfy his various needs in life. Man cannot live in isolation. He seeks the cooperation and help of others to fulfill his needs and to develop his personality.

State :
State is people organized for law within a definite territory.

Association :
Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose or a limited number of purposes.

Differences between State and Association :
State and association differ from one another in the following matters.

State	Association
1. State is a political organization.	1. Association is a social organization.
2. State has definite territory.	2. Association has no definite territory.
3. State has sovereignty.	3. Association has no sovereignty.
4. Membership of the state is compulsory.	4. Membership of the association is not compulsory.
5. State is permanent.	5. Association is not permanent.
6. State is superior to the associations.	6. Associations are inferior to the state.
7. Laws of the state are uniform.	7. Rules of association are not uniform.
8. State can interfere in the affairs of the associations.	8. Associations can’t interfere in the affairs of the state.

Question 8.
In what way are State and Government related?
(Or)
Explain the relationship between State and Government.
Answer:
Introduction :
We often use the terms “State” and “Government” indiscriminately one for the other”. State means government in practice” said by HJ. Laski. “State means almost government machinery”.

State :
State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Government:
Government is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state

Relationship between State and Government:
The relationship between state and government can be discussed as follows.

1) Both are established by individuals :
State and government are two important organizations established by Individuals. The two came into existence for protecting the people and for regulating the conditions between them.

2) Complementary :
State is the government for all practical purposes. Government carries on its activities in the name of the state. Whatever government does. It does in the name of the state. The Stuart king in England and Louis XIV in France viewed the state and government as complementary.

Question 9.
Distinguish between State and Government.
Answer:
Introduction :
We often use the terms “State” and “Government” indiscriminately one for the other”. State means government in practice” said by H.J. Laski. “State means almost government machinery”.

State :
State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Government:
Government is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state.

Differences between State and Government :
The following are the differences between state and government.

State	Government
1. State has four elements namely population, territory, government and sovereignty.	1. Government is one of the essential elements of the state.
2. State is a permanent organisation.	2. Government is a temporary organisation.
3. State consists of the whole body of people – The rulers and the ruled.	3. Government consists of only the rulers.
4. State has the sovereignty.	4. Government does not have sovereignty.
5. State is the master.	5. Government is the servant.
6. Membership of the state is compulsory.	6. Membership in government is not compulsory.
7. All states are alike in the sense they possess the same four features (or) elements like Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty.	7. Governments are different types, viz. Parliamentary – Presidential – Unitary – Federal, Democratic – Dictatorial etc.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Mention any two definitions of state.
Answer:

“State is a people organised for law within a definite Territory”. – Woodrow Wilson
“State is a politically organised people of a definite Territory”. – Bluntschlli.

Question 2.
How many essential elements does the State possess? What are they? [T.S. 2017]
Answer:
State consists of four essential elements. They are :

Population
Territory
Government and
Sovereignty.

Question 3.
What do you mean by ‘Government’? [T.S. Mar, 15]
Answer:
Government is the third essential element of the state. There can be no state without government. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state.

Question 4.
How many other elements does the State possess? Name them.
Answer:
Besides Population, Territory, Government, and Sovereignty, state will also possess four other elements. They are :

International recognition
Permanence
General obedience and
Popular will.

Question 5.
What do you know about ‘Society’?
Answer:
The term “Society” refers to the interaction of complex norms among the people. It can be defined as a group of men brought together by a system of common ideas, interests, and aspirations. It is a voluntary association. It’s membership is optional. It originated much earlier than the state.

Question 6.
What do you mean by ‘Association’?
Answer:
Association is a group of people united for a specific purpose or a limited number of purposes. Associations are of various types viz., social, economic, political, cultural, religious etc. It’s membership is optional. A person can be a member of a numer of associations.

Question 7.
Write about the qualitative aspect of the population of a State.
Answer:
The qualitative aspect of the population is more important for a state. Aristotle rightly said that good citizens make a good state. If the people are committed, disciplined, hard working, honest and intelligent, then the state achieves rapid progress.

Question 8.
Does a state require International recognition?
Answer:
It implies recognition of the sovereign status of a state by other states. This feature has gained currency due to the immerse technologlical and scientific advancements. The man of today is not only a member in his state but also a member of the entire world at large. Today majority of the countries of the world are joining in one or the other international associations to obtain certain benefits.

The United Nations Organisation is the best example for such associations. It’s membership is considered to be necessary for attaining perfect and complete statehood. Whenever a new state comes into existence, it’s recognition by other states and by UN is considered as very essential.

Question 9.
Mention any two differences between State and Society.
Answer:

State	Society
1. State is a political organization.	1. Society is a social organization.
2. State regulates only the external relation of men in society.	2. Society controls both internal and external activities of men in society.

Question 10.
Write about any two differences between State and Government.
Answer:

State	Government
1. State has four elements namely population, territory, government and sovereignty.	1. Government is one of the essential elements of state.
2. State is the master.	2. Government is the servant.

Question 11.
How many organs of Government are there? Explain their functions briefly.
Answer:
Government is the third essential element of the state. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state. Government consists of three organs viz.,
i) Legislature :
Law making organ. Ex : Parliament.

ii) Executive :
Law implementing organ. Ex : Council of Ministers.

iii) Judiciary:
Justice administering organ. Ex : Supreme court and High courts.

Question 12.
Mention any two differences between State and Association.
Answer:

State	Association
1. State is a political organization.	1. Association is a social organization.
2. State has sovereignty.	2. Association has no sovereignty.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material Chapter 1 Scope and Significance of Political Science

October 6, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 1st Lesson Scope and Significance of Political Science Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Civics Study Material 1st Lesson Scope and Significance of Political Science

Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define Political Science and explain its scope. [A.P. Mar, 17, 16, 15]
(or)
Explain the scope of Political Science.
Answer:
Introduction :
Political Science is a premier social science. It is mainly concerned with the study of the state in its relation to Society, Citizens, Associations, and the world at large. Aristotle is hailed as the Father of Political Science. He wrote the famous book “THE POLITICS”.

Origin of the word Politics :
Aristotle, the Father of Political Science used the term “POLITICS” for the first time in his famous book “POUTICS”. The term “POLITICS” is derived from a greek word “POLIS” and latin word “POLITICUS” which means the city state.

Definitions of Political Science :
Political Scientists gave various definitions on Political Science. They are as follows :
1. J.W. Gamer:
“Political Science begins and ends with the state”.

2. Stephen Leacock:
“Political Science deals with the government”.

3. David Easton :
“Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society”.

Scope of Political Science :
The scope of Political Science means the subject matter covered by it or the topics which are included in its study. It may be explained in the following ways :

i) Study of man in Relation to the Society and State :
Aristotle stated that “Man is a Social Animal”. Man can satisfy his basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and protection in the society. Political Science explains the relationship beween man and society. It examines how man should adjust himself with the societys. It is imperative that the modem man should develop proper attitude towards the society. This is possible only when he identifies himself with the society.

Political Science is concerned with the perennial and central issue of establishing proper relationship between the state and the individuals. It deals with many topics of state activity, such as limitations of Political Authority and sphere of Individual Freedoms.

ii) Study of State :
Aristotle also stated that man is a Political Animal. State is a human and political institution. It came into existence for the sake of man and continue in existence for providing happy and prosperous life for man. Individuals became members of the state since, its inception. We can’t imagine the life of individuals outside of the state. Political Science studies the intimate Relationship between the state and the citizens. It also studies the Nature, Functions and Various theories of state authority.

It also comprises a study of the various activities of the state from that of ancient police state to the modem welfare state. Thus, Political Science deals with the Present, Past and FUture aspects of the state.

iii) Study of the Government :
Government is an important essential element of Modem State. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state. There can be no state with out a government. Government formulates, expresses and implements the will of the state. Government consists of three organs namely Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Legislature makes the laws, Executive implements the laws and Judiciary interpretes the laws. Political Science studies the meaning, forms, structure, nature and functions of the government. It also discusses the relationship among the various organs of the government. Hence, Political Science is treated as a science of government.

iv) Study of Associations and Institutions :
Associations and Institutions help the Individuals for their moral, religious, cultural, scientific and technological progress. These carry on their activities at local, regional, national and international levels. Individuals join as members in these Associations out of their interests or purposes. There prevails a great linkage between these voluntary Associations and Institutions. Associations and Institutions in Modem times play a significant role in the Formulation and Implementation of policies of the state and government. Voluntary bodies such as trade unions, peasant groups, professional bodies etc., will have a great impact on the state and government. Political Science explains the nature, structure and functions of the various Associations and Insti-tutions.

v) Study of Rights and Responsibilities:
Scope of Political Science includes the study of Rights and Responsibilities of citizens. Citizens in democratic states enjoy certain rights such as right to life, right to liberty, right to property etc. Political Science enumerates the definition, classification and different theories of Rights. Similarly, citizens will have some Responsibilities towards the state. These include paying taxes, obeying the laws etc. It explains the significance of Rights and Responsibilities of the citizens. Hence, Political Science examines the Realtionship between Rights and Responsibilities.

vi) Study of National and International Issues:
The scope of Political Science covers various issues of Modem state in relation with other states in matters of safeguarding Ter-ritorial integrity and Sovereignty. It studies the topics like Cold war, Balance of power, Disarmament, Detente etc. Modem states are not isolated. They depend upon other states in many spheres like importing raw materials, exporting finished goods, transport, technology, services and communications. This requires close relations among the states in international sphere. Political Science discusses not only the domestic policies of the state but also the issues of international dimensions. It covers a wide range of topics such as diplomacy, international politics, international law, international organisations etc.

vii) Study of Power:
The behaviouralists of 20th century regarded Political Science as a study of sharing and shaping of power. They pointed out that Political Science discusses how power is grabbed, manipulated anti perpetuated to have a control over the society. Morgenthau defined the power as “Man’s control over the Minds and Actions of other Men”.

viii) Study of Public Policy:
Modem Political Scientists like David Easton and Gabriel Almond argued that Political Science is a “Policy Science”. They considered Political Science as the study Of formulation, execution and evaluation of Public Policy, with the advent of Public Policy the scope of Political Science has further widened to include the dimensions of vital topics such as Industrial Policy, Agricultural Policy, Land Reform Policy, Education Policy, Population Policy etc. Public Policy of a Nation in the context of International Relations plays a crucial role in the formulation of diplomatic, economic, military and scientific strategies.

Conclusion:
The above contents show the wide range of subjects that come under the purview of Political Science.

Question 2.
Discuss the significance of the study of Political Science. [A.P. Mar. 19]
Answer:
The study of Political Science is very useful and valuable. It’s knowledge is indispensible to the rulers as well as the ruled. Its significance or importance is analysed as follows.

i) Information about the State :
The primary aim of studying Political Science is to inculcate knowledge of the state. It’s origin, nature, Structure and functions. Knowledge of the state is of great significance to every one. Solutions to various political issues are found only when we have a proper understanding of the political institutions.

ii) Knowledge of Government and Administration :
The Administrators, political leaders and diplomats who manipulate the affairs of the state require a sound knowledge of political science in order to perform their functions with efficiency. Political Science creates awareness about the organisation, control and coordination of Administrative machinery. It also covers the study of local self-governments like Gram Panchayats, Mandal Parishads, Zilla Parishads, Municipalities, Corporations etc.

iii) Provides information about Democratic values :
Political Science provides accurate information about the various political terms such as State, Government, Nation, Con-stitution, Democracy, Sovereignty, Law etc., which are used commonly. Political Science also provides a good knowledge and awareness about the Democratic values like Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, Justice and Rights.

iv) Makes Democracy Successful:
At present Democracy is in vogue in several coun-tries of the world. It is the best form of government. People in democracy elect their repre-sentatives and are ruled by them. If honest, selfless and committed representatives are not elected, the expectations of the people will not be fulfilled. Political Science explains the significance of Franchise. It educates the common men on the conditions essential for the successful functioning of democratic government.

v) Awareness about rights and responsibilities:
The study of Political Science makes people conscious of their rights and responsibilities. It also enables the citizens to be familiar with their rights and responsibilities and the interrelationship between the two. Its study makes the citizens to realize the fact that a proper exercise of rights and responsibilities is a must for leading civilised life.

vi) Teaches the Qualities of Good Citizenship :
Political Science impacts the best civic knowledge by explaining the qualities of good citizenship like cooperation, sacrifice, patriotism, obedience to the state and to the laws, farsightedness, social service etc. It trains the people to become ideal citizens.

vii) Knowledge about World Affairs:
The study of Political Science enriches individual’s knowledge on World Affairs. Political Science is useful for observing and understanding the contemporary world affairs. It stimulates right thinking, broad vision and universal understanding of various phenomena of international politics. It’s study is useful for proper’ analysis and solution of various National and International Issues.

viii) Provides knowledge about International Organizations :
A citizen of the present is not only a member of the state but also a member of the world at large. The study of Political Science promotes the spirit of internationalism. It provides a good knowledge about International Organizations like United Nations Organisation, SAARC, ASEAN, NAM, OPEC etc. It teaches about the need for harmonious relations among the nations.

ix) Develops Political Awareness :
The study of Political Science is of great impor-tance in the sense that it imports best political knowledge. It explains about the structure and functioning of different political institutions like State Government, Political parties, Occupational Associations. Hence the study of Political Science is the best training ground for knowing, following and practising the art of leadership.

x) Explains the need for Co-Operation and Toleration :
National Integration has become a crucial factor in several states. Many obstacles like communalism, linguism, sub-national regional and sub-regional feelings etc., have been threatening the national inte-gration in these states. In this context, the study of Political Science teaches about the need for adjustment, cooperation and toleration.

xi) Knowledge of Political Science is Indispensable :
The study of Political Science helps everyone to understand the mechanism and constitutional system of modem govern-ments. It creates awareness about the contemporary issues in national and international spheres. If creates awareness about Rights and Responsibilities. It’s study is essentially indispensable for the people in developing nations like India. As the majority people in these states are poor, ignorant, illiterate and sentimental in their out look. The study of Political Science inculcates a good political knowledge among them.

Aristotle regarded Political Science as the supreme science and the master of all social sciences.

Question 3.
Define Political Science and explain its nature.
Answe:
Political Science is a premier Social Science. It is mainly concerned with the study of the state in it’s relation with society, citizens, associations and the world at large. Aristotle is hailed as the Father of Political Science. He wrote famous book ‘THE POLITICS”. The term “politics” is derived from a greek word” “POLIS” and latin word “POLiTICUS” which means the city state.

Definition of Political Science:
Political Scientists gave various definitions on Political Science. They are as follows :
1. J.W. Gamer:
“Political Science begins and ends with the state”.

2. Stephen Leacock:
“Political Science deals with the government”.

Nature of Political Science:
There prevailed a controversy among the political scien-tists in regard to the nature of Political Science. Some viewed Political Science as a science others treated it as an art. Let us examine the two aspects (Science and Art) of Political Science.

i) Political Science is a SCIENCE :
According to political philosophers like Aristotle, Bluntschli, Hobbes, Montesque and others Political Science is considered as a science on the following grounds.

Political Science is studied in a systematic manner.
Experimentation is possible in politics. Principles are applied in the actual organisation of Political Institutions.
Political Science, like other sciences, has absolute and universal laws.
Predictions are easily applicable in politics.
Certain generally agreed principles can be incorporated into the study of Political Science.
Political Science, like other sciences, gives scope for establishing relationship be-tween cause and effect.

ii) Political Science is an ART :
According to political writers like Barker, J.S. Mill, Laski and others Political Science is considered as an ART on the following grounds.

Political Science has no absolute and universal laws like physical sciences.
The phenomena studied in Political Science are interpreted in various ways de-pending upon the context and situation. So it lacks uniformity in the interpretation of various concepts.
Political Science is not evolutionary in nature as its concepts are not developed in a steady, regular and continuous manner.
Scientific methods of observation and experimentation are not applicable in political science.
Complete objectivity and detachment are not found in the case of various phenom-ena in Political Science.
Political Science gives no scope for accuracy.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about the traditional definitions of Political Science.
Answer:
Traditional definitions of Political Science may be classified under three sub catego-ries. They are mentioned as follows.
i) Political Science – A Study of the State :
Political philosophers like J.W.Gamer, R.G.Gettle, Appadovai and others defined Political Science as a study of the state.

1. J.W.Gamer:
“Political Science begins and ends with the state”.

2. R.G.GettIe :
“Political Science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is and a politico-ettical discussion of what the state should be”.

3. Appadorai:
“Political Science is concerned with the conditions essential for the existence and development of the state”.

ii) Political Science – A study of the Government:
Some political philosophers like Stephen Leacock, J.R.Seely and others defined Political Science as a study of the govern-ment.

1. Stephen Leacock :
“Political Science deals with the Government”.

2. J.R.Seely :
“Political Science investigates the phenomenon of the Government”.

iii) Political Science – A study of the State and the Government:
Political philoso-phers like Paul Janet, Gilchrist, Catlin and others defined political science as a study of the state and the government.

1. Paul Janet:
“Political Science is that part of social science which treats the founda-tions of state and the principles of the government”.

2. R.N.Gilchrist :
“Political Science is a study of foundations of the state and the government”.

3. Catlin :
“Political Science is a study of the political activities of individuals and various organs of government”.

Question 2.
What are the various modem definitions of Political Science?
Answer:
Modem definitions of Political Science can be classified into two sub-categories. They are discussed as follows..
i) Political Science – A study of power:
1. Lasswell and Kaplan :
“Political Science as an empirical discipline, is the study of shaping and sharing of power”.

2. William A.Robson :
“Political Science is primarily concerned with the power in society”.

ii) Political Science – A study of Allocation of values :
1. David Easton :
“Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society”.

2. Hill Man :
“Politics is the Science of who gets what, when, and why”.

Question 3.
Explain about the nature of Political Science.
Answer:
Political Science is a premier Social Science. It is mainly concerned with the study of the state in it’s relation with society, citizens, associations and the world at large. Aristotle is hailed as the Father of Political Science. He wrote famous book ‘THE POLITICS”. The term “politics” is derived from a greek word” “POLIS” and latin word “POLiTICUS” which means the city state.

Definition of Political Science:
Political Scientists gave various definitions on Political Science. They are as follows :
1. J.W. Gamer:
“Political Science begins and ends with the state”.

2. Stephen Leacock:
“Political Science deals with the government”.

i) Political Science is a SCIENCE :
According to political philosophers like Aristotle, Bluntschli, Hobbes, Montesque and others Political Science is considered as a science on the following grounds.

Political Science is studied in a systematic manner.
Experimentation is possible in politics. Principles are applied in the actual organisation of Political Institutions.
Political Science, like other sciences, has absolute and universal laws.
Predictions are easily applicable in politics.
Certain generally agreed principles can be incorporated into the study of Political Science.
Political Science, like other sciences, gives scope for establishing relationship be-tween cause and effect.

ii) Political Science is an ART :
According to political writers like Barker, J.S. Mill, Laski and others Political Science is considered as an ART on the following grounds.

Political Science has no absolute and universal laws like physical sciences.
The phenomena studied in Political Science are interpreted in various ways de-pending upon the context and situation. So it lacks uniformity in the interpretation of various concepts.
Political Science is not evolutionary in nature as its concepts are not developed in a steady, regular and continuous manner.
Scientific methods of observation and experimentation are not applicable in political science.
Complete objectivity and detachment are not found in the case of various phenom-ena in Political Science.
Political Science gives no scope for accuracy.

Question 4.
Mention any three topics coverd under the scope of Political Science.
Answer:
i) Study of man in Relation to the Society and State:
Aristotle stated that “Man is a Social Animal”. Man can satisfy his basic needs like food, clothing, shelter and protection in the society. Political Science explains the relationship beween man and society. It exam- ines how man should adjust himself with the societys. It is imperative that the modem man should develop proper attitude towards the society. This is possible only when he identifies himself with the society.

ii) Study of State :
Aristotle also stated that man is a Political Animal. State is a hu-man and political institution. It came into existence for the sake of man and continue in existence for providing happy and prosperous life for man. Individuals became members of the state since its inception. We can’t imagine the life of individuals outside of the state. Political Science studies the intimate Relationship between the state and the citizens. It also studies the Nature, Functions and Various theories of state authority.

iii) Study of Associations and Institutions :
Associations and Institutions help the Individuals for their moral, religious, cultural, scientific and technological progress. These cany on their activities at local, regional, national and international levels. Individuals join as members in these Associations out of their interests or purposes. There prevails a great link-age between these voluntary Associations and Institutions. Associations and Institutions in Modem times play a significant role in the Formulation and Implementation of policies of the state and government. Voluntary bodies such as trade unions, peasant groups, professional bodies etc., will have a great impact on the state and government. Political Science explains the nature, structure and functions of the various Associations and Institutions.

Question 5.
Describe the scope of Political Science in the sphere of Government.
Ansnswer:
Scope of Political Science includes the study of government. Some political scientists like Stephen Leacock and John Richard Seeley confined the scope of the discipline to the government alone. Political Science mainly studies about the government Government is an agency of the state. There can be no State without a government. The state realises its aims through the instrument of government. Government formulates, expresses and implements the will of the state. There must be some men or body of men who are authorised to issue orders on behalf of the state. They are known as the government.

Political Science studies the meaning, forms, structure, nature and functions of the government. It discusses the relationship among the various organs of the government. It makes a differentiation between the State and Government. While dealing with the government, Political Science narrates the classification of various governments as given by Aristotle, Leacock and others. Political Science discusses the various merits and demerits, essential conditions and manifold activities of the above governments. Hence, political Science is treated as a science of government.

Question 6.
”Political Science is a study of the present, past and future of the state”. Analyse this statement
Answer:
Political scientists like Gamer and Paul Janet viewed Political Science as a study of the affairs of the state. They conceived the state as a Political Institution. The state is indispensable for every individual. Political Science studies the intimate relationship between the state and the citizens. Political Science studies the state in present, in the past and in future.

i) Study of state in the Present :
Political Science deals with the state as it exists today. It explains the meaning, nature, purpose, growth and functioning of the state. It also deals with public opinion, political parties and pressure groups which seek to capture the political power or influence public policies.

ii) Study of state in the Past:
Political Science explains about the origin and transfor-mation of the state. It also discusses about the diverse political institutions that existed within the state. It studies various factors that influenced the origin and evolution of the state. This sort of historical study is possible only in political science.

iii) Study of State in Future :
Political Science tries to determine the principles and concepts of a model state. It lays down the conditions under which a perfect state is real-ized. Political Scientists conceive the future with a view to improve the standards of political institutions and their activities in the light of changing conditions.

On the whole, the scope of Political Science includes the study of various activities; of the state from that of ancient police state to the modem welfare state. Thus, Political Science deals with the present, past and future aspects of the state.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Write about Ancient city states.
Answer:
Ancient Greece consisted of a large number of city states. They were small both in size and population. For example, Athens,Sparta, Corinth. Each city state had its own gov-ernment. The greeks based their political philosophy on the concept of city-state. The popu-lation of the city-state was divided into three groups : 1) Citizens 2) Aliens and 3) Slaves.

Question 2.
Give any two traditional definitions of Political Science.
Answer:
Political scientists gave various definitions on Political Science. They are as follows.

1. J.W.Gamer:
“Political Science begins and ends with the State”.

2. Stephen Leacock:
“Political Science deals with the Government”.

3. David Easton :
“Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society”.

Question 3.
Write about any two modem definitions of Political Science.
Answer:
Modem definitions of Political Science can be classified into two sub-categories. They are discussed as follows..
i) Political Science – A study of power:
1. Lasswell and Kaplan :
“Political Science as an empirical discipline, is the study of shaping and sharing of power”.

2. William A.Robson :
“Political Science is primarily concerned with the power in society”.

ii) Political Science – A study of Allocation of values :
1. David Easton :
“Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society”.

2. Hill Man :
“Politics is the Science of who gets what, when and why”.

Question 4.
How does Political Science teach the qualities of good citizenship?
Answer:
Political Science imparts the best civic knowledge by explaining the qualities of good citizenship like cooperation, sacrifice, patriotism, obedience to the state and to the laws, forsightedness, social service etc. It trains the people to become ideal citizens.

Question 5.
Justify the statement that Political Science in an Art.
Answer:
Political Science is an ART:
According to political writers like Barker, J.S. Mill, Laski and others Political Science is considered as an ART on the following grounds.

Political,Science has no absolute and universal laws like physical sciences.
The phenomena studied in Political Science are interpreted in various ways de pending upon the context and situation. So it lacks uniformity in the interpretation of various concepts.
Political Science is not evolutionary in nature as its concepts are not developed in a steady, regular and continuous manner.
Scientific methods of observation and experimentation are not applicable in political science.
Complete objectivity and detachment are not found in the case of various phenom-ena in Political Science.
Political Science gives no scope for accuracy.

Question 6.
On what grounds is Political Science considered as a Science?
Answer:
Political Science is a SCIENCE :
According to political philosophers like Aristotle, Bluntschli, Hobbes, Montesque and others Political Science is considered as a science on the following grounds.

Political Science is studied in a systematic manner.
Experimentation is possible in politics. Principles are applied in the actual organisation of Political Institutions.
Political Science, like other sciences, has absolute and universal laws.

Question 7.
Name any four topics covered under the scope of Political Science.
Answer:
The scope of Political Science comprises the following points.

Study of man in relation to the society and state.
Study of the state.
Study of the government.
Study of Associations and Institutions.

Question 8.
In what way is Political Science considered as a study of Government?
Answer:
Study of the Government: Government is an important essential element of Modem State. It is an instrument which fulfills aims and goals of the state. There can be no state with out a government. Government formulates, expresses and implements the will of the state. Government consists of three organs namely Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Legislature makes the laws, Executive implements the laws and Judiciary interpretes the laws. Political Science studies the meaning, forms, structure, nature and functions of the government. It also discusses the relationship among the various organs of the government. Hence, Political Science is treated as a science of government.

AP Inter 1st Year Commerce Study Material Chapter 12 Emerging Trends in Business

October 3, 2022

Andhra Pradesh BIEAP AP Inter 1st Year Commerce Study Material 12th Lesson Emerging Trends in Business Textbook Questions and Answers.

AP Inter 1st Year Commerce Study Material 12th Lesson Emerging Trends in Business

Essay Answer Questions

Question 1.
Define E – business and explain the scope of E – business.
Answer:
Ther term E-business refers to the integration of business tools based on ICT to improve the functioning of the company. “E-business” refers to the use of an online support for the relationship building between a company and clients. E – business was first used by IBM in 1997. It defined E – business as “the transformation of key business processes through the use of internet technologies”. E – business is defined as the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) which support all the activities and realms of business.

E-Business uses web based technology to improve relationships with customers. Implementing an E-business project necessarily involves the deployment of a network or web – interface connecting company specific services to the client.

Scope of E – Business :
E – business can be divided into following areas.
a) E – business within the organisation

b) Business to business (B2B) :
E – business refers to an exchange of products and services by one business and another.

c) Business to customer (B2C) :
E – business refers to an exchange of products and services from a business to a customer.

d) Customer to customer (C2C) :
E – business refers to C2C transactions are being facilitated by websites like quicker, olx, where customers offer their products online to be bought by other customers.

e) Customer to business (C2B) :
C2B transactions involve provision of project work by customers on internet to the needy companies.

Most of us are aware of buying products online through some sites like Flipkart, Jabong and Amazon. Almost everything from gym equipment to laptops, apparels to Jewelries are available online in this age of E-commerce. Even people are also buying services online. Business consultants, lawyers and doctors are offering their services or advices to their potential clients via internet.

Electronic business is a super set of business cases. E – commerce is one of the aspects of e – business. Some other important aspects of e – business, which are successfully carried through the internet, are e – auctioning, e – banking, e – directories, e – engineering, e – franchising, e – gambling, e – learning, e – mailing, e – marketing e – operational resource management, etc.

i) E-commerce :
Transacting or facilitating business through internet is called e-commerce. E-commerce is short for “Electronic commerce”.

ii) E – auctioning :
The internet enables people to participate in the auction without sacrificing their personal time. In e – auctioning the people who want to participate in the auction, visit the website with a click and go through the details.

iii) E-banking :
Electronic banking is one of the most successful online businesses. E-banking allows customers to access their accounts and execute orders through use of website. Online banking allows the customers to get their money from an ATM.

iv) E-marketing :
Electronic marketing provides a worldwide platform for buying and selling of goods without having any geographical barriers. The internet allows companies to react to individual customer demands immediately without any loss of time. It does not matter where the customer is located.

v) E – trading :
E-trading is also known as “online trading” or e – broking. It is used for buying and selling stocks in stock exchanges.

Question 2.
Explain the benefits of E – business.
Answer:
E-business has many advantages which can be broadly classified into the following categories.
A) Benefits to Customer
B) Benefits to Organisation
C) Benefits to Society

A) Benefits to Customer:
i) Shopping at ease :
E – business enables customers to shop or do other transactions 24 hours a day, round the year from almost any location.

ii) Wide choice :
Customers will have more choices or more alternative products and services.

iii) Price savings :
E – business provides customers with less expensive products and services by allowing them to shop in many places and conduct quick comparisons.

iv) Exchange of information :
Allows customers to interact with other customers and exchange their opinions and experiences on products purchased.

B) Benefits to Organisation :
i) Reach beyond boundaries :
Extends the market place to national and international markets.

ii) Cost savings:
Reduces the cost of creating, processing, distributing, storing, and retrieving information. Allows reduced inventories and overheads.

iii) Competitive benefits :
Reduced processing time allows for customization of products and services for achieving competitive advantages.

iv) Earlier capital collection :
Reduces the time between the outlay of capital and the receipt of products and services.

C) Benefits to Society :
i) Environmental benefits :
Enables more individuals to work at home and to do less travelling for shopping, resulting in less traffic on the roads and lower air pollution.

ii) Public welfare :
Allows some merchandise to be sold at lower prices benefiting the poor ones.

iii) Availability of products :
Enables people in Third World countries and rural areas to enjoy produces and services which otherwise are not available to them.

Question 3.
Explain the opportunities of business enterprises in 21^st century.
Answer:
The following are the opportunities of business enterprises in 21^st century:

i) LPG :
The economic reforms initiated in the form of Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization (LPG) have brought in structural changes which ultimately created favourable environment for business enterprises in India.

ii) Increase in size and diversification :
The 21^st century business enterprises are characterized with large-sized and highly diversified organisations. Companies are able to reduce their costs and thereby increase in profits.

iii) Increase in per capita income :
India has emerged as the fourth largest economy globally with a high growth rate with its improved per capita income. Per capita income is the measure of living standards of its people in a country. As India’s per capita income is increasing, the business opportunities are also increasing in India.

iv) Market economies:
The Indian economy being one of the largest economies in the world with a population of more than 1.2 billion is flourishing and attracting industrial, trade and service sectors all around the world.

v) E-Commerce – A gate way to global markets :
Business enterprises across the globe are discovering the benefits of electronic commerce.

vi) Technological advancements :
21^st century business enterprises are able to use ultramodern technology. With the advancement of technology, organisations are able to offer services.

vii) Expansion of financial services :
Banking insurance, debt and equity financing, micro finance sectors are helping the people to save money and to get liberal credit for their future needs.

viii) Automation of business processes :
Business Process Automotion (BPA) is the strategy that a business uses to automate processes in order to curtail costs. The objective of BPA is not only to automate business processes,but also to simplify and improve business workflows in terms of achieving greater efficiency, adapting to changing business needs and reducing potentiality human error.

ix) Growing mergers, acquisitions and foreign collaborations :
Mergers and acquisitions is a strategy of modern business enterprises for improving innovation, profitability, market share and stock prices. This helps in generating cost effectiveness.

x) Scope for international enterpreneurship :
In 21^st century, many organizations are globalizing their businesses in terms of manufacturing, service delivery, capital sourcing, or talent acquisition as a defensive strategy. Similarly these are discovering a new business opportunities in more than one country to create new products or services to suit to the diversified needs of the customers.

Question 4.
Explain the challenges of business enterprises in 21^st century.
Answer:
The following are the challenges of business enterprises in 21^st century:
1) Threat of technology :
Business organisations have to adopt themselves in tune with the changing technology and modernize their plant and equipment and processes, if not they will become outdated in the market.

2) Growing consumer awareness:
Growing consumer awareness about the products and services will continue to drive sustainability of business in 21st century. Businesses need to respond to consumer demand to gain customers and avoid losing their market share.

3) Challenges of globalization :
Globalization is leading to strategic challenges of mixed cultures and languages in the business environment.

4) Depleting natural resources:
Most of the manufacturing enterprises depend upon certain natural resources which is a key source of raw materials.

5) Economic recession :
Economic recession took place in the United States and Europe is slowly showing its affects on performance of business enterprises in other countries also.

6) Information challenges :
Information technology supported by a new world infra-structure of data communications and telecommunications i.e. use of internet, wireless, e-commerce as part of management tools and easing of technology transfer has posed a bigger challenge for 21^st century business enterprises.

7) The challenge of the environment :
Environmental degradation is one of the biggest challenges of business organisations facing today. Pollution and global warming are the challenges, which all countries are facing.

8) Corruption and bureaucratic hurdles :
Corruption is a very big hurdle for doing business. It is a barrier to the effective development of the private sector and poses business risks.

9) Changing regulatory frame work:
A changing regulatory environment is always of concern in certain industries. Two key areas of regulatory challenges are taxes and health care. The threat of increased costs due to new carbon taxes and presser to “go green” is another challenge.

10) Transparency and governance :
Corporate governance involves organizing and prioritizing a variety of interests. Modern companies are in surveillance of transparency and governance issues.

11) Corporate social responsibility:
The practical implementation of corporate social responsibility is facing lot of problems. Lack of understanding, inadequate trained personnel, coverage, etc. are a few hurdles of CSR programmes.

12) Foreign exchange risk :
Foreign exchange risk is another factor causing constant instability in the running of business organisation.

13) Security Issues:
Security threat to business has become more pronounced in 21^st century. With the proliferation of Electronic Commerce and the “Virtual Office”, threats are becoming everyday occurrence to business.

14) Human resource challenges:
One of the biggest challenges of 21^st century business is human resources – finding the right staff, training, and retaining them are concerns of the HR function.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Explain the scope of E-business.
Answer:
The scope of E-business can be divided into following areas :
a) E-business within the organisation
b) Business to business (B2B) dealing
c) Business to customer (B2C) transactions
d) Customer to customer (C2C)
e) Customer to business (C2B)

The following a and b category E-business refers to an exchange of production and services by one business and another business from a business to a customer and c and d category E-business refers to transactions are being facilitated by websites where customers offer their products online, to be bought by other customers and provision of project work by customers on internet to the needy companies.

Some other important aspects of e – business, which are successfully carried through the internet, are e – auctioning, e – banking, e – directories, e – trading, etc. In the age of e – commerce almost everything from gym equipment to laptops are available online. Even people are also buying services online. Business consultants, lawyers and doctors are offering their services or advices to their potential clients via internet.

Question 2.
What are the benefits ofE – business to organizations?
Answer:
The following are the benefits of E-business to organizations.
i) Reach beyond boundaries:
Extends the market place to national and international markets.

ii) Cost savings :
Reduces the cost of creating, processing, distributing, storing and retrieving information. Allows reduced inventories and overheads.

iii) Competitive benefits:
Reduced processing time allows for customization of products and services for achieving competitive advantages.

iv) Earlier capital collection :
Reduces the time between the outlay of capital and the receipt of products and services.

Question 3.
What are the benefits ofE – business to customers?
Answer:
The following are the benefits of E – business to customers.
i) Shopping at ease:
E-business enables customers to shop or do other transactions 24 hours a day, round the year from almost any location.

ii) Wide choice :
Customers will have more choices or more alternative products and services.

iii) Price savings :
E-business provides customers with less expensive products and services.

iv) Exchange of information :
Allows customers to interact with other customers and exchange their opinions and experiences on products purchased.

Question 4.
Briefly outline the risks faced while involving in a E-business transaction.
Answer:
The following are the risks faced while involving in a E-business transaction.

Risk of the information being unauthorized altered while travelling the internet.
Risk related to confidentiality of personal information and banking information.
Risk relating to legal enforceability of transactions.
Risk of failure of electronic communications.
Risk to the management in controlling and clearing the E-commerce transactions.
Risks relating to technology like viruses and hacking.

Question 5.
What are the benefits of E-business to society?
Answer:
The following are the benefits of E-business to the society.

i) Environmental benefits:
Enables more individuals to work at home and to do less travelling for shopping, resulting in less traffic on the roads, and lower air pollution.

ii) Public welfare:
Allows some merchandise to be sold at lower prices benefiting the poor ones.

iii) Availability of products:
Enables people in Third World countries and rural areas to enjoy produces and services which otherwise are not available to them.

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
business [May 17-T.S.]
Answer:
The term ‘E-business’ refers to the integration of business tools based on ICT to improve the functioning of the company. The term e-business was first used by IBM in 1997. It defined E-business as “the transformation of key business processes through the use of internet technologies”. E-business uses web based technology to improve relationship with customers.

Question 2.
E-banking [Mar. 2019, 15 -T.S.]
Answer:
Electronic banking is one of the most successful online businesses. E-banking allows customers to access their accounts and execute orders through use of website. Online banking allows the customers to get their money from an Automated Teller Machine (ATM), instead of walking up to the cash desk in the bank, can view their accounts, transfer funds and can pay bills. Eg. Net Banking.

Question 3.
E-marketing
Answer:
Electronic marketing provides a worldwide platform for buying and selling of goods without having any geographical barriers. The internet allows companies to react to individual customer demands immediately without any loss of time. It does not matter where the customer is located by e-mails, etc.

Question 4.
E-commerce
Answer:
Transacting or facilitating business through Internet is called E-commerce. E-commerce is short for “Electronic commerce”. A form of business transactions conducted electronically in E-commerce.

Question 5.
E – auctioning
Answer:
The internet enables people to participate in the auction without sacrificing their personal time. In E – auctioning the people, who want to participate in the auction, visit the website with a click and go through the details of goods offered.

Question 6.
E – trading [Mar. 17 – T.S.]
Answer:
E-trading is also known as “online trading” or E – broking. It is used for buying and selling stocks in stock exchanges.